fr 


BV  1549  .R6 

Rowe,  Henry  Kalloch,  1869- 

1941. 
Landmarks  in  Christian 


I,  4  ,^  4-  ^  ^ 


THE    BIBLE    STUDY    UNION    LESSONS 
THE  COMPLETELY  GRADED  SERIES 


LANDMARKS  IN 
CHRISTIAN   HISTORY 


BY 

HENRY    K.    ROWE,    PH.D. 


Charles  F,  Kent,  Ph.D.  )   ^ ...       „.^ 

Gborge  a.  Coe.  Ph.D..  LL.D.)  Consulhng  EdHors 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
Nbw  York 


Copyright,  1911,  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Lesson    2. 

Lesson    3. 

Lesson    4. 

Lesson    5. 

Lesson    6. 

Lesson    7. 

Lesson    8. 

Lesson    9. 

Lesson  10, 

Lesson  11. 

Lesson  12. 

Lesson  13. 

Lesson  14. 

Lesson  15. 

Lesson  16. 

Lesson  17. 

Lesson  18. 

Lesson  19. 

Lesson  20. 

Lesson  21. 

Lesson  22. 

Lesson  23. 

Lesson  24. 

Lesson  25. 

PART  I.     CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  OLDEN  TIME. 

A  Gbeek  City  in  tue  Days  of  Paul 1 

How  Christianity  Reached  Antioch  and  Spread  from  it. 
The  Birth  of  Christianity      .........         6 

The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Jesus. 
How  Saul.  THE  Persecutor  Became  Paul  the  Missionary  .         .         .11 

The  Conflict  with  Judaism  and  Heathenism. 
The  New  Religion  and  Old  Habits  .......       17 

How  Christianity  Affected  the  Social  Order. 
One  of  the  Brotherhood  at  Ephesus.      .......       22 

How  a  Christian  Lived  in  the  Late  First  Century. 
Christianity  in  Greek  Lands  in  the  Second  Century      ....       26 

Its  Progress  and  its  Opposing  Forces. 
The  Christian  Martyrs 32 

The  Story  of  Perpetua. 
How  there  Came  to  be  a  Creed        ........       37 

The  Beginnings  of  Christian  Theology. 
How  the  Church  Became  a  World  Power        ......       42 

The  Ambition  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 
The  Barbarian  Deluge 48 

How  the  Ancient  Empire  Became  Mediaeval  Europe. 
The  Missionary  Monks. 53 

How  the  Barbarians  were  Made  Christians. 
Knights  of  the  Red  Cross      .........       58 

Mohammedanism  and  the  Crusaders. 
The  Climax  of  Authority 63 

What  the  Christian  Religion  had  Come  to  Mean  in  1200  a.d. 

PART  II.    THE  GREAT  AWAKENING. 

The  New  Ideas  of  a  Barefoot  Preacher  ......       69 

The  Church  Designed  for  Service,  not  Sovereignty.  '' 

The  Strange  Theories  of  the  Southern  Heretics  .....       74 

The  Albigensians  and  the  Waldensians. 
Life  on  an  English  Manor      .........       79 

The  Country  Folk  and  their  Superstitions. 
Florence  in  the  Days  of  Savonarola 84 

The  Revival  of  Learning  and  Morals. 
How  A  Saxon  Monk  Set  Germany  on  Fire       .         .         .         .         .         .89 

Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 
Geneva  IN  the  Days  of  Calvin 91. 

His  Opposition  to  the  Libertines. 
The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  .......     100 

Protestantism  in  France  before  and  after. 
The  Standing  Army  of  the  Catholic  Church 105 

Loyola  and  the  Jesuits. 
The  Struggle  of  the  Dutch  Burghers  fob  Independence        .      .  .110 

Religion  and  Politics. 
A  Knight  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  .         .         .         .         .         .115 

How  Gustavus  Adolphus  Saved  German  Protestantism. 
A  Nobleman  of  the  Eighteenth  Century         ......      121 

Count  Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravians. 
An  Emperor  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 126 

Napoleon  and  the  Religous  Situation  in  Europe. 

Hi 


tv 


Contents 


Lesson  26.    The  Old  and  the  New  m  Edropk 131 

Catholicism  and  the  Spirit  of  the  Present  Age. 

PART  ni.     ANGLO-SAXON  CHRISTIANITY. 

Lesson  27.    The  English  Revolt  from  Rome 139 

Henry  VIII  and  the  Anglican  Church. 
Lesson  28.    How  England  Became  Protestant 144 

The  Boy  King  and  his  Advisers. 
Lesson  29    The  Episcopal  Church 150 

The  Anglican  Idea  in  England  and  America 
Lesson  30.    Queen  Mart  and  the  Smithfield  Martyrs 156 

The  Failure  to  Restore  Catholicism 
Lesson  31.    How  Scotland  Became  Protestant 161 

The  Trials  of  John  Knox. 

32.  Presbyterians  est  History 167 

Their  Principles  and  their  Practice. 

33.  The  English  Puritans 173 

Oliver  Cromwell  and  his  Men. 

Lesson  34.    The  Pilgrim  Exiles 179 

The  Mayflower  and  its  Company. 
Lesson  35.    Congregationalists  m  America 185 

What  Congregationalism  Means. 
Lesson  36.    A  Day  in  Puritan  Boston 190 

The  Banishment  of  Roger  Williams. 
Lesson  37.    The  Baptists  and  their  Principles 196 

Growth  in  America  and  Europe. 
Lesson  38.     Christianity  for  the  Working  People  of  England  .         .         .         .201 

Wesley,  the  Evangelist  and  Social  Reformer. 
39.    The  Methodists      ...........     207 

What  Methodism  Stands  for. 


PART  IV.     THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE 
NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Lesson  40.     Carey  and  the  Missionary  Emphasis 216 

The  Gospel  in  the  Far  East. 
Lesson  41.     Christianity  on  the  American  Frontier 221 

Pioneers  in  the  West. 
Lesson  42.    Wilberforce  and  Humanitarian  Endeavor      .         .  ....     227 

Christianity  and  Social  Service. 
Lesson  43.    Lincoln  the  Slave  Emancipator 333 

The  End  of  Slavery  in  the  United  States. 
Lesson  44.    The  Gospel  of  Self-Control  . 238 

The  Crusade  for  Temperance  and  Purity. 
Lesson  45.    The  Ministry  of  Health 244 

The  War  against  Diseases. 
Lesson  46.    The  Gospel  of  Brotherly  Love       ........     250 

Christian  Charity  and  the  Social  Settlements. 
Lesson  47.     Christianity  in  the  City  Slums 255 

William  Booth  and  the  Salvation  Army. 
Lesson  48.     Christianity  in  the  Rural  Villages 261 

Oberlin  in  the  French  Mountains. 
Lesson  49.     Christianity  in  Education 267 

The  Christian  Schools  and  the  Christian  Press. 
Lesson  50.    The  Old  Faith  and  the  New  Learning  273 

The  Place  of  Evolution  in  Modern  Christianity. 
Lesson  51.     Christianity  and  National  Problems  278 

The  Christian  Spirit  in  Government  and  Business. 
Lesson  52.    The  World  at  Peace 283 

Christianity  the  Teacher  of  World  Brotherhood. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Note  1.  What  is  History?  A  famous  teacher  of  history  in  Eng- 
land once  said:  "  History  is  past  politics;  politics  is  present  history." 
But  it  is  more  than  that.  He  might  better  have  said:  History  is 
life  preserved;  present  life  is  history  in  the  making.  All  that  we 
come  into  contact  with  at  the  present  day  has  connection  with  the 
life  of  some  other  day.  The  family  of  which  we  are  a  part  exists 
because  it  has  a  long  history  back  of  it — it  is  what  we  call  an  his- 
torical institution.  The  house  in  which  we  live  is  built  as  it  is 
because  such  an  arrangement  has  been  found  in  the  past  to  be  con- 
venient, or  because  it  was  the  style  of  building  long  ago.  The  village 
or  city  with  which  we  are  familiar  is  governed  after  the  pattern  of 
Englishmen  or  their  remote  ancestors  in  the  fens  and  forests  of 
Germany.  The  school  and  the  church  have  behind  them  a  long 
history. 

Note  2.  Why  Study  History?  Of  course  it  is  possible  to  live  in 
the  present  and  largely  to  disregard  the  past.  We  should  then  in 
spirit  get  back  nearer  to  our  remote  ancestors  who,  successful  in 
the  hunt,  gorged  themselves  with  food  and  went  to  sleep  without 
a  thought  for  the  next  day.  They  had  no  regard  for  the  future, 
we  have  no  interest  in  the  past.  But  there  are  at  least  two  reasons 
why  this  is  not  wise.  One  is  that  no  one  has  a  right  to  claim  to  be 
a  man  of  intelligence  and  education  who  is  ignorant  of  what  industry 
and  science  and  religion  have  done  in  days  gone  by;  the  other  is 
that  science  has  discovered  that  the  law  of  life  is  a  law  of  unfolding, 
that  is,  that  everything  now  existing  has  developed  out  of  what  was 
previously  in  existence.  In  the  same  way  the  future  will  grow  out 
of  the  present,  and  we  can  help  to  shape  it  by  understanding  the 
past  and  present  out  of  which  it  grows. 

Note  3.  Why  Study  the  History  of  Christianity?  It  is  not  easy 
then  to  escape  the  task  of  studying  history.  But  why  interest  our- 
selves in  Christian  history?  For  two  more  reasons.  Because  it  has 
been  the  means  of  a  great  deal  of  human  progress;  and  because  it 
is  the  greatest  force  for  good  in  the  world  today — it  is  what  students 
of  society  call  a  powerful  dynamic.  Christian  history  is  not  a 
record  of  dead  facts,  but  of  a  living  force;  and  so  it  has  a  rich  mean- 
ing for  students  of  current  events,  and  for  those  who  wish  to  have  a 
part  in  solving  social  problems. 

V 


^l  Introduction 

Note  4.  The  Purpose  and  Plan  of  this  Course.  The  purpose  of 
this  course  is  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  understanding  of  the  present 
activities  of  the  church  and  of  the  various  agencies  that  are  at  work 
for  the  betterment  of  the  individual  and  of  society.  It  is  not  studied 
for  information  merely,  but  for  practical  usefulness  as  well.  The 
plan  is  to  measure  the  progress  of  human  beings  by  certain  land- 
marks in  the  history  of  Christianity.  These  are  to  be  found  all 
along  the  way  for  the  last  nineteen  hundred  years,  but  for  conven- 
ience we  consider  four  periods:  (1)  Christianity  in  the  Olden  Time; 
(2)  The  Great  Awakening;  (3)  Anglo-Saxon  Christianity;  (4)  Chris- 
tian Expansion  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  The  narrative  is  full  of 
interest,  and  there  are  many  points  at  which  the  student  will  wish 
to  stop  and  think,  and  talk  it  over,  for  questions  naturally  arise 
that  need  consideration  and  discussion.  Provision  is  made  for  this. 
Some  topics  will  need  fuller  investigation,  and  references  to  other 
books  will  be  found  useful. 

Note  5.  Longer  and  Shorter  Courses.  The  subject  of  the  whole 
course  is  designed  for  a  full  year's  study,  but  each  Part  can  be  taken 
up  by  itself.     If  any  Part  must  be  omitted,  it  should  be  the  last. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

The  narrative  of  the  first  few  lessons  is  found  mainly  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  indicated  in  the  sources  of  each  lesson.  The  American 
Revised  Version  of  the  Bible  is  recommended.  Thereafter  the  story 
can  be  gathered  from  the  outline  of  the  lesson,  or  more  fully  from  a 
history  of  the  Christian  church.  Among  the  brief  outlines  are 
Vedder's  Church  History  Handbooks,  Zenos'  Compendium  of  Church 
History,  and  Hurst's  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  A  fuller 
account  is  given  in  Newman's  Manual  of  Church  History,  published 
in  two  volumes.  An  interesting  series  of  stories  is  to  be  found  in 
Walker's  Great  Men  of  the  Christian  Church. 

In  preparing  the  lesson  read  first  the  note-book  summary  of  the 
previous  lesson.  Then  read  slowly  through  the  story  of  the  day  as 
told  in  the  text-book,  noting  the  special  points  indicated  under  **  Sug- 
gestions for  Study  "  preceding  the  story  of  each  lesson.  Make  note 
of  difficult  points  to  be  mentioned  in  the  class.  Test  yourself  by 
means  of  the  questions  printed  at  the  end  of  the  lesson  story.  Think 
carefully  about  the  matter  for  special  discussion.  Prepare  the  note- 
book work  assigned  by  the  teacher  on  the  previous  Sunday.  Use 
the  reading  references  as  freely  as  opportunity  permits. 


LANDMARKS  IN  CHRISTIAN 
HISTORY 


I,    Christianity  in  the  Olden  Time 


Lesson  1.    A  GREEK  CITY  IN  THE  DAYS   OP  PAUL.     How 

Christianity  reached  Antioch  and  spread  from  it. 

Sources. — Acts  11:26;  Josephus:  Antiquities,  XII.  iii.  1;  Wars,  HI.  i\.  4; 
Sozomen:  Church  History,  Book  V.  chap.  19.  Josephus  was  a  Jew  of  good 
family  who  lived  in  the  first  Christian  century,  took  part  in  the  revolt  against 
Rome,  and  later  went  to  Rome  where  he  wrote  the  history  of  the  Jews.  Sozo- 
men wrote  a  history  of  the  Christian  church  in  the  fourth  century.  He  lived 
during  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  carefully  the  Introduction  and 
the  Directions  for  Study. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted:  (a)  geograph- 
ical location,  races,  political  relations;  (b)  religious  beliefs  and  customs;  (c) 
the  contrast  between  the  splendor  of  Greek  celebration  and  the  small  beginnings 
of  Christianity  in  Antioch;  (d)  a  later  comparison  of  paganism  and  Christianity. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion:  Is  it  worth  while  to 
give  time  and  strength,  like  Paul,  for  the  betterment  of  city  people,  whether  in 
this  country  or  elsewhere? 

4.  Prepare  note-book  work  as  follows:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  pre- 
vious lesson  as  given  by  the  teacher  in  the  class  is  written  out  in  full,  (b)  Look 
up  the  following  names  and  write  a  sentence  or  two  about  each  of  them:  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  Pompey,  Herod  the  Great,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  prominent 
events  in  the  history  of  Antioch,  with  approximate  dates. 

Note  1.  Antioch.  Near  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  two  mountain  ranges  front  each  other  across  an  historic 
stream.  On  the  north  a  spur  of  the  long  Taurus  chain  pushes  its 
foot  into  the  narrow  valley;  to  the  south  lies  the  chain  of  the  Lebanon 
Mountains.  Miles  away  in  the  interior  the  river  Orontes,  now  Nahr 
el  'Asi,  has  its  source,  and  between  these  mountains  makes  its  way 
to  the  sea.  Nineteen  hundred  years  ago  a  great  city  stood  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  twenty  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  extended  across 
the  plain  from  the  river  to  Mount  Silpius,  and  climbing  its  slope, 
perched  its  citadel  high  on  the  mountain,  and  flung  its  walls  far  up 
the  mountain  sides.  Through  the  city  for  several  miles  trailed  a 
wide  avenue,  paved  part  of  the  way  with  marble  slabs,  and  flanked 

1 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


With  trees,  colonnades,  and  covered  promenades,  where  the  people 
might  walk  in  shelter  from  sunshine  or  storm. 

Note  2.  Its  History.  Seleucus,  a  general  of  the  great  Alexander, 
had  built  the  city  about  300  b.  c,  and  named  it  Antioch  after  his 
father  Antiochus.  With  shrewd  foresight  he  built  it  at  a  point  where 
it  would  readily  gather  the  peoples  of  many  countries.  It  had  a 
healthful  situation  by  the  mountains,  and  was  near  enough  to  the 
sea  to  feel  its  breezes.  It  was  favorably  situated  for  a  center  of 
trade.  Through  the  mountain  pass  made  by  the  river  might  come 
the  merchants  of  the  East.  Up  stream  could  be  brought  the  wares 
of  the  West  from  across  the  sea,  and  to  facilitate  this  commerce  its 
founder  built  the  port  of  Seleucia  at  the  fiver's  mouth.  People 
poured  into  the  city  from  all  directions,  Greeks  and  Macedonians, 
Jews,  Africans,  and  Asiatics  mingling  with  the  native  Syrians.  The 
city  grew  rapidly.  Succeeding  princes  added  to  its  resources  and 
its  beauty.  Herod  the  Great  was  its  special  benefactor.  Noble 
bridges  crossed  the  broad  river;  aqueducts  and  baths,  theaters, 
public  basilicas,  and  private  villas  beautified  the  city;  and  its  streets 
were  thronged  with  cosmopolitan  crowds  bent  on  pleasure  or  gain. 
The  population  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era  is  estimated 
at  half  a  million.  Antioch  ranked  as  the  third  city  in  the  empire 
of  Rome,  surpassed  only  by  Alexandria  and  the  capital  itself. 

Note  3.  Its  Relation  to  Rome.  Syria  had  been  made  a  Roman 
province  by  Pompey  in  63  b.  c,  and  naturally  Antioch  became  the 
seat  of  the  governor  of  Syria.  But  the  Antiochians  were  permitted 
a  large  measure  of  self-government,  and  enjoyed  the  special  privi- 
lege of  freedom  from  a  property  tax.  The  early  Roman  emperors 
were  especially  friendly  to  the  Jews,  and  continued  to  them  the 
privilege  of  having  their  own  ethnarch,  a  privilege  which  had  been 
granted  by  the  Greeks  long  before.  Of  course,  Syria  and  its  capital 
were  a  part  of  the  great  empire,  and  many  Roman  oflScials,  mer- 
chants and  travellers  were  visitors  and  residents  at  Antioch.  The 
masses  of  the  people  were  less  concerned  with  politics  than  with  the 
daily  pastimes  that  filled  their  lives. 

Note  4.  Its  Attractiveness.  The  place  was  peculiarly  attractive 
for  residence.  Besides  the  advantage  of  its  location  and  its  pros- 
perity the  city  was  renowned  throughout  the  ancient  world  as  a 
pleasure  resort.  On  the  west  side  four  or  five  miles  away  was  the 
fair  grove  of  Daphne,  where  the  shade  of  dark  laurel  and  cypress 
trees  furnished  a  delightful  retreat  on  the  hottest  summer  day,  where 


One 


A  Greek  City  in  the  Days  of  Paul 


were  fountains  and  statues  and  a  great  temple  of  Apollo,  and  where 
in  August  each  year  was  held  a  religious  festival  that  became  a 
carnival  of  licentious  freedom.  Poets  and  pliilosophers  in  the  city 
streets  and  along  the  paths  of  the  grove  of  Daphne  vied  one  with 
another  in  praising  passion  and  pleasure.  Art,  music  and  dancing 
enlivened  the  hours  of  day  and  night.  The  people  were  fond  of 
the  scenes  of  the  theater,  and  enjoyed  the  race-course  with  such  mad 
abandon  that  party  strife  broke  out  at  times.  Thousands  gave 
their  whole  time  to  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  To  live  in  Antioch  was 
to  be  as  gay  as  a  modern  Parisian. 

Notes.  Religion  in  Antioch.  Such  gaiety  as  the  people  of 
Antioch  enjoyed  is  not  in  these  days  associated  with  religion.  Re- 
ligion does  not  demand  a  long  face  but  it  requires  a  clean  life.  But 
in  the  Greek  and  Roman  world  of  ancient  times,  and  in  parts  of 
the  Far  East  today  religious  rites  and  immoral  practices  are  asso- 
ciated closely.  That  is  because  religion  so  often  has  meant  the 
performance  of  certain  ceremonies  or  the  obedience  to  certain  laws, 
and  the  disregard  of  conduct.  It  is  not  surprising  then  to  learn 
that  in  the  city  of  Antioch  religion  had  a  prominent  place.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  worshipped  many  gods.  They  built  a  great 
many  shrines  and  temples,  and  did  not  neglect  their  offerings.  The 
great  deities  were  honored  magnificently  with  gatherings  and  pro- 
cessions, when  crowds  of  people  attended  the  priests  and  priestesses 
whose  business  it  was  to  minister  to  the  deities.  The  whole  city 
swarmed  to  the  grove  of  Daphne  for  the  great  festival  of  the  year, 
and  a  visitor  to  the  city  might  suppose  that  Greek  religion,  with  all 
its  joyousness  and  abandon,  was  the  chief  concern  of  this  great 
metropolis  of  the  East. 

Note  6.  How  Christianity  came  to  Antioch.  Into  this  city 
there  came  one  day  a  Jew  of  Tarsus.  It  may  have  been  on  one  of 
those  festival  days  when  Greeks  and  Syrians  and  Romans  had  gone 
to  Daphne,  but  in  the  Jewish  quarter  he  would  find  plenty  of  Jews. 
The  strict  Jew  stood  aloof  from  such  frivolities,  cold,  severe,  and 
proud  in  his  own  religion.  Among  such  men  the  newcomer  and  his 
companion,  who  had  joined  him  from  Jerusalem,  found  a  place  to 
stay.  They  had  come  as  religious  teachers.  They  were  not  at- 
tended by  bands  of  priests  or  dancing  girls.  No  throng  greeted 
them  as  they  passed  through  the  city  gate.  They  were  not  even 
honored  rabbis  among  the  Jews.  But  news  had  gone  out  from 
Antioch  some  time  before  that  a  number  of  people  in  the  city  had 


''4  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  "^'"* 

learned  the  story  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  from  wandering  disciples  of 
Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  and  had  become  His  followers.  Barnabas  had 
come  from  the  Jerusalem  Christians  to  investigate,  and  satisfied  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  religious  changes  in  Antioch,  had  gone  off  to 
Tarsus  to  get  Saul,  who  at  one  time  had  been  a  notorious  persecutor 
of  behevers  in  Christ,  but  who  had  become  a  preacher  of  His  gospel. 
So  Saul  of  Tarsus — better  known  by  his  Roman  name  Paul — and 
Barnabas  of  Jerusalem  came  to  Antioch  to  help  the  small  company 
of  Jews  and  Gentiles  who  had  believed  in  Jesus  Christ. 

Note  7.  The  Meaning  of  it  all.  In  the  Jewish  quarter,  in  the 
street  Singon,  close  by  the  forum  and  the  amphitheater,  Paul  found 
a  place  to  preach,  and  he  gathered  converts  one  by  one  from  the 
community  until  the  followers  of  Jesus  in  the  city  became  numerous 
enough  to  attract  public  attention.  But  the  simple  religion  of  the 
Jew  Jesus,  without  temple  or  priest,  ritual  or  festival,  seemed  fool- 
ishness to  the  crowd  in  contrast  to  the  splendor  of  their  worship; 
and  to  speak  of  a  Galilean  as  Christ  a  King,  was  to  them  the  height 
of  absurdity.  In  derision  they  dubbed  His  followers  Christians.  It 
was  the  first  time  that  the  followers  of  Jesus  had  been  called  by  that 
name.  They  had  called  themselves  *'  disciples  "  in  their  relation 
to  the  Master,  "  brethren  "  in  their  relation  one  to  another.  But 
now  they  were  given  a  name  that  identified  them  with  that  which 
was  at  the  root  of  their  faith,  the  lordship  of  Jesus.  Henceforth 
they  were  to  be  known  by  that  term. 

To  one  who  saw  Paul  standing  in  a  group  of  these  Christians 
and  a  crowd  of  idle  hangers-on  it  would  have  seemed  a  hopeless  task 
and  a  waste  of  time.  Paul  would  better  have  been  making  tents. 
The  same  scorn  comes  to  many  who  see  a  Salvation  Army  exhorter 
on  a  downtown  corner,  or  a  Christian  missionary  by  the  street  side 
in  an  oriental  city.  But  that  which  had  its  small  beginning  in 
Antioch  grew.  That  same  Paul  after  a  year  went  out  from  that 
same  city  and  evangelized  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  and  after  him  and  beside  him  others  preached  and  taught 
the  new  Christian  faith.  Groups  of  believers  became  large  com- 
panies, congregations  became  churches,  teachers  and  charity  admin- 
istrators became  powerful  bishops,  and  cities  like  Antioch  learned 
to  honor  the  names  of  Christian  and  of  Christ.  And  before  the  days 
of  Antioch's  decline  that  very  metropolis  became  one  of  the  four 
chief  centers  of  Christianity  in  the  ancient  world,  and  the  splendid 
festivals  of  the  grove  of  Daphne,  with  their  alluring  immoralities, 
were  no  more. 


*^"*  A  Greek  City  in  the  Days  of  Paid  5 

Questions  on  the  Introduction. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  history? 

2.  State  some  reasons  why  we  should  study  the  history  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

3.  What  are  the  sources  from  which  we  derive  our  information? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Where  was  Antioch? 


2.  What  were  its  natural  surroundings? 

3.  Wliat  peoples  lived  in  the  city? 

4.  Why  did  so  many  settle  there? 

5.  Sketch  its  political  history. 

6.  What  was  the  relation  of  the  city  to  Rome? 

7.  What  special  religious  celebration  was  held  at  Antioch: 

8.  In  what  ways  do  people  show  their  religion? 

9.  Of  what  value  are  religious  ceremonies? 


6  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^°" 

10.  How  did  Christianity  come  to  Antioch? 


Reading  References, 
(i)  Myers:  Ancient  History  (revised  edition),  pp.  290,  291,  466. 
(2)  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  23.  (3)  Ar- 
ticle on  "  Antioch  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  (4)  Farrar:  Life 
of  St.  Paul,  Book  V,  ch.  16.  {S)  Conybeare  and  Howson:  Life  and 
Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  pp.  114-124. 


Lesson  2.    THE  BIRTH   OF   CHRISTIANITY.    The  Life  and 
Teachings  of  Jesus. 

Sources. — The  gospel  narratives  in  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John,  and  the 
account  of  the  events  in  Jerusalem  given  in  Acts  chs.  1-7.  Very  useful  are 
Stevens  and  Burton's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  Burton's  Records  and  Letters 
of  the  Apostolic  Age. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson, 
and  be  ready  for  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted:  (a)  the  connec- 
tion between  Judaism  and  Christianity;  (b)  the  peculiarities  in  the  life  of  Jesus 
that  made  it  different  from  the  lives  of  other  men;  (c)  the  characteristics  of  the 
teaching  of  Jesus;  {d)  the  contrast  of  the  old  order  and  the  new  faith  as  they  met 
in  conflict. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion:  What  are  the  ele- 
ments of  greatness  in  the  career  of  Jesus? 

4.  Prepare  note-book  work  as  follows:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  pre- 
vious lesson  is  written  correctly,  (b)  Draw  a  map  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  includ- 
ing the  leading  places  mentioned  in  the  Galilean  ministry  of  Jesus,  (c)  Make  a 
list  of  the  persons  with  whom  Jesus  talked  privately  and  the  topic  which  they 
discussed,     (d)  Make  an  abstract  of  the  address  of  Stephen  (cf.  Acts  7). 

Note  1.  The  Birthplace  of  Christianity.  Christianity  was  born 
in  the  homeland  of  the  Jews.  It  was  cradled  in  Jerusalem.  It  ma- 
tured in  the  lands  that  border  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  east. 
It  made  its  way  east  into  Asia,  south  into  Africa,  and  west  into 
Europe  and  America  until  it  circled  the  globe.  Christianity  came 
out  of  Judaism.  The  Christian  religion  is  based  on  the  teaching 
of  Jesus,  who  inherited  Jewish  ideas,  and  interpreted  the  best  that 
the  Jewish  prophets  had  taught  in  terms  large  and  broad  enough 
to  fit  the  whole  human  race.  His  teachings  were  made  powerful  by 
the  life  of  singular  goodness  that  He  lived.     They  were  acceptable 


Two 


The  Birth  of  Christianity 


to  others  besides  Jews  because  they  fitted  the  spiritual  and  social 
needs  of  many  people  at  a  time  when  they  were  pecuHarly  hungry 
and  thirsty  for  a  satisfying  rehgion.  The  Hfe  of  Jesus  became  the 
central  fact  of  history.  The  teachings  of  Jesus  became  the  pattern 
of  right  thinking  and  correct  living. 

Note  2.  The  Life  of  Jesus.  Jesus  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  a 
small  town  of  Judea  near  Jerusalem.  He  was  reared  to  young 
manhood  in  the  highland  district  of  Galilee.  At  Nazareth  He  was 
on  the  edge  of  the  civilization  that  was  represented  in  the  Romanized 
towns  and  in  the  traffic  that  passed  through  them  and  along  the 
highways  that  skirted  the  lake  of  Galilee  and  radiated  in  all  direc- 
tions. Among  the  hills  He  was  still  closely  in  touch  with  the  world's 
life.  He  lived  among  a  people  of  mixed  race,  loyal  to  Judaism,  but 
inferior  in  standing  to  the  inhabitants  of  Judea  and  its  capital  city 
of  Jerusalem. 

When  about  thirty  years  of  age  Jesus  was  conscious  of  a  summons 
to  become  a  teacher  of  religion  and  morals  to  His  own  people.  He 
was  attracted  by  the  prophet  John,  who  was  preaching  in  the  region 
of  the  lower  Jordan;  He  participated  in  his  baptism;  and  with  the 
sternness  of  His  task  weighing  upon  Him  He  retired  into  the  unkempt 
country  of  southern  Judea,  and  fought  out  with  Himself  the  first 
great  struggle  of  His  life.  He  won  the  victory  over  His  lower 
ambitions,  and  set  before  Himself  the  task  of  establishing  a  spiritual 
kingdom  by  the  very  simple  process  of  making  men  and  women 
better,  in  place  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  that  the  Jews  anticipated. 
Unable  to  make  Jerusalem  the  center  of  His  efforts  He  went  back 
early  in  His  ministry  to  the  Galilean  people  whom  He  knew  best, 
and  who  were  more  teachable  than  the  self-satisfied  Jews  of  Judea. 
He  gathered  about  Himself  a  few  devoted  friends,  made  Capernaum 
on  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  His  nominal  place  of  residence, 
and  spent  most  of  His  time  talking  to  the  people  in  that  city,  on 
the  hillsides  and  along  the  shore  of  the  lake,  and  at  intervals  touring 
the  north  country  on  foot  that  He  might  meet  the  people  on  their 
own  level  and  help  them  physically  and  spiritually.  He  performed 
wonderful  deeds  of  healing  from  physical  disease,  and  no  less  strange 
transformations  from  sin  and  moral  degradation.  He  planted  the 
seeds  of  religious  truth  along  the  highways  and  bypaths,  and  met 
the  people  in  their  fields,  by  the  wayside  wells  and  in  their  own 
homes  with  the  sole  purpose  of  doing  them  good  and  stirring  in 
them  the  ambition  to  be  better.  Occasionally  He  visited  Jerusalem, 
especially  at  the  great  festivals  of  His  race,  for  He  was  a  loyal  Jew. 


8  Landmarks  in  Christian  History     *  "^"^ 

There  He  came  in  contact  with  the  people  of  culture  as  well  as  the 
rabble  of  the  city.  He  had  lively  tilts  with  the  Pharisees,  who  were 
proud  of  their  old  religion  and  church,  with  the  worldly  and  fash- 
ionable Sadducees,  with  the  scribes  and  the  priests  of  the  temple, 
but  His  heart  was  with  the  people  of  the  streets  who  needed  help, 
and  for  them  He  sacrificed  His  strength  and  His  chances  of  popu- 
larity and  preferment  among  the  select  circles  of  the  capital. 

Months  of  helpful  ministry  made  Jesus  the  idol  of  the  crowd;  but 
there  came  a  day  in  Capernaum  when  He  made  it  plain  that  He  had 
not  undertaken  to  free  them  from  the  political  yoke  of  Rome  and 
give  them  an  easy  living,  and  the  bulk  of  the  people  deserted  Him 
and  His  spiritual  ideals.  Unshaken  in  His  lofty  purpose.  He  did 
not  avoid  the  enemies  that  He  had  made  by  His  frank  discussions 
of  true  religion,  especially  in  Jerusalem,  and  there  at  the  feast  of 
the  Passover  He  was  seized,  condemned  at  a  mock  trial,  and  exe- 
cuted by  crucifixion,  hounded  to  death  by  the  leaders  of  the  old 
Judaism. 

Note  3.  The  New  Hope.  Christianity  had  been  born  only  to  be 
strangled  in  the  cradle,  as  it  seemed.  The  crowd  had  been  disap- 
pointed and  had  turned  against  Jesus.  The  Jewish  leaders  had 
refused  Him  their  approval,  and  condemned  Him  as  an  upstart  and 
unauthorized  rabbi.  The  Galilean  lakeside  and  the  streets  of  Jeru- 
salem were  no  longer  the  scene  of  a  unique  public  ministry.  But 
there  were  disciples  of  this  Teacher  who  beHeved  in  Him  even  in 
death,  and  who  were  reassured  by  the  sight  of  a  risen  Savior,  the 
same  Jesus  whom  they  had  known  in  the  flesh,  but  no  longer  subject 
to  human  limitations  or  to  death  itself.  He  had  been  true  to  His 
mission;  they  would  be  true  to  His  teachings.  To  them  was  com- 
mitted the  task  of  living  and  preaching  the  gospel  that  He  had 
proclaimed,  and  before  them  was  set  the  hope  that  they  too  should 
be  victors  over  sin  and  death,  and  sharers  in  the  larger  destiny  of 
a  life  beyond  the  grave. 

Note  4.  The  Teaching  of  Jesus.  At  the  beginning  of  His  preach- 
ing in  Galilee  (Mark  1 :  14,  15)  Jesus  declared  that  He  came  to  bring 
good  tidings.  His  gospel  was  made  most  vivid  by  the  life  He  lived. 
The  Christian  religion  is  based  on  His  life  and  His  words.  His 
teaching  had  two  striking  characteristics.  It  was  first  of  all  for  the 
individual  that  through  Christ  he  might  come  to  understand  his 
personal  relation  to  God  the  Father,  and  might  live  a  friendly  life 
among  men  grounded  on  his  relationship  to  God.  It  was  at  the 
same  time  for  the  social  whole,  that  it  might  be  fashioned  into  a 


Two 


The  Birth  of  Christianity  9 


truer  unity  through  the  spirit  of  fellowship,  and  so  become  in  a 
true  sense  the  kingdom  of  God.  Henceforth  it  was  not  enough  for 
a  man  to  say  that  he  believed  in  God,  to  go  into  the  temple  and  by 
means  of  a  sacrifice  or  ceremony  to  make  himself  right  with  God, 
and  then  to  go  out  and  abuse  his  fellowmen;  but  he  was  to  live  a 
religion  which  should  make  him  friendly  with  all  men,  and  should 
keep  him  from  envy,  lust  and  crime,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  his 
own  soul,  but  even  more  for  the  sake  of  the  common  good. 

Note  5.  Conflict  with  the  Old  Order.  This  teaching  of  Jesus 
was  in  harmony  with  the  teaching  of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  Christianity  grew  out  of  Jewish  stock. 
But  it  was  contrary  to  the  teaching  of  the  priests  and  scribes  in 
the  time  of  Jesus;  they  put  the  emphasis  on  the  correctness  of  cere- 
mony and  exactness  in  keeping  the  Mosaic  law.  For  this  reason  the 
leaders  of  the  Jewish  church  hated  Jesus,  and  brought  about  His 
death.  But  Christianity  was  not  dead.  Some  of  those  who  had 
believed  in  Jesus  remained  in  Jerusalem,  cherishing  the  hope  that 
before  long  He  would  come  again,  and  win  others  to  faith  in  Him- 
self as  the  Messiah.  There  were  several  skirmishes  between  the 
leaders  of  both  parties.  At  last  there  came  an  open  outbreak. 
Stephen,  one  of  the  followers  of  Jesus,  was  charged  with  incendiary 
utterances  against  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  order,  and  he  boldly 
hurled  a  challenge  at  the  leaders  w^ho  had  crucified  Jesus,  declaring 
that  Moses  and  the  prophets  had  seen  with  even  clearer  vision  the 
true  meaning  of  religion,  but  their  successors  were  resisting  the 
spirit  of  God  and  had  killed  the  greatest  of  all  the  prophets.  The 
law  and  the  temple  foreshadowed  a  larger  faith  in  Christianity, 
which  they  were  too  narrow  to  see. 

Note  6.  A  General  Policy  of  Persecution.  It  is  not  strange  that 
the  fury  of  the  Jewish  leaders  broke  forth  impetuously  upon  the  man 
who  had  made  so  grave  a  charge.  What  was  he  to  speak  so  boldly 
against  priest  and  scribe  and  Pharisee.^  One  man  stood  as  the  fear- 
less representative  of  a  despised  and  condemned  sect,  as  Jesus  had 
stood  alone  against  the  crowd.  Opposed  to  him  was  the  whole 
force  of  the  Jewish  church.  Without  waiting  for  the  Roman  sanc- 
tion of  their  condemnation,  they  hurried  him  forth  and  stoned  him 
to  death  at  the  feet  of  the  man  who  was  some  day  to  be  the  champion 
of  Christianity  on  a  larger  field — Saul  of  Tarsus.  The  death  of 
Stephen  was  a  signal  for  a  general  persecution  of  tiiose  who  were 
followers  of  Jesus,  and  the  disciples,  thrust  out  of  the  Jewish  church. 


10  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


were  compelled  to  flee  from  the  city  for  safety.  Once  more  the  old 
order  had  triumphed,  but  the  new  faith  that  was  born  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  was  at  the  threshold  of  a  larger  and  more  successful  career. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 
1.  In  what  ways  was  Antioch  famous  both  among  Christians  and 


pap^ans 


2.  Who  helped  to  make  it  a  great  Christian  city? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Where  were  the  beginnings  of  Christianity? 


2.  Why  did  Christianity  spread  beyond  the  Jews? 


3.  What  localities  are  most  closely  associated   with   the  life  of 
Jesus? 


4.  What  kind  of  country  was  Galilee? 


5.  What  are  the  leading  facts  in  the  life  of  Jesus — (a)  before  His 
active  ministry;  {]))  in  Galilee;  (c)  in  Jerusalem? 


6.  What  was  left  after  the  death  of  Jesus? 


7.  Explain  the  two  great  characteristics  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus. 


8.  Why  were  the  Jewish  leaders  so  unfriendly  to  the  gospel? 


Three    jj^y^  SawZ  the  Persecutor  Became  Paul  the  Missionary      11 

9.  What  was  there  about  the  address  of  Stephen  that  aroused 
such  intense  hatred? 


10.  What  resulted  from  the  execution  of  Stephen? 


Reading  References. 
{1)  The  Gospel  according  to  Mark.     (2)  Watson:  The  Life  of  the 
Master,  pp.  155-163.     (S)  Purves:  The  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  51-55. 


Lessons.    HOW   SAUL  THE   PERSECUTOR  BECAME   PAUL 

THE   MISSIONARY.    The    Conflict  with   Judaism  and 

Heathenism. 

Sources. — The  New  Testament  account  of  Paul  is  found  in  Acts,  chs.  8-28  and 
Galatians  1:  13 — 2:  9.  Ancient  traditions  regarding  his  death  are  recorded  in 
the  fifth  chapter  of  the  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  written  by  Clement,  head 
of  the  church  in  Rome,  about  95  a.  d.;  and  in  the  Church  History  of  Eusebius, 
Book  2,  ch.  25,  written  in  the  fourth  century. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson, 
and  be  prepared  for  questions. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  day.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  changes  in  Paul's 
character  that  attended  his  conversion;  (b)  his  earnestness  in  everything  that  he 
did;  (c)  the  principal  places  where  he  lived  and  preached;  (d)  the  means  he  used 
to  influence  people;  (e)  the  contrast  between  Saul  at  the  execution  of  Stephen, 
and  Paul  when  he  came  to  his  own  death. 

3.  The  following  topics  are  for  special  thought  and  discussion:  Was  Paul 
justified  in  turning  from  his  own  people  to  carry  on  foreign  missions  among  non- 
Jews?  Can  the  arguments  in  favor  of  his  action  be  used  to  justify  foreign  mis- 
sions today? 

4.  The  note-book  entries  for  this  lesson  should  include  a  list  of  the  principal 
places  visited  by  Paul,  with  a  map  showing  their  location.  See  that  the  sum- 
mary of  the  previous  lesson  is  written  out.  This  should  stand  at  the  end  of  the 
lesson  to  which  it  belongs. 

Note  1.  The  Strange  Experience  of  Saul  of  Tarsus.  When  the 
zealous  Jews  took  up  stones  to  kill  Stephen  after  the  old  Mosaic 
custom,  they  turned  over  their  outer  clothing  to  a  certain  Saul  of 
Tarsus,  who  was  a.xiong  the  most  hot-headed  radicals.  When  per- 
secution broke  out  against  the  followers  of  Jesus,  he  was  the  most 
vigorous  of  Jewish  detectives;  and  when  he  led  a  search  for  Chris- 
tians as  far  away  as  Damascus  a  strange  experience  changed  his 


12  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


whole  career.  A  blinding  vision  came  upon  liim  at  the  hour  of 
noon-day  heat,  and  a  voice  that  he  recognized  as  that  of  Jesus 
Christ  called  liim  to  account,  and  sent  him  into  the  city  for  instruc- 
tion in  rehgion.  Instead  of  proceeding  roughly  to  haul  men  and 
women  to  prison,  Paul  groped  his  way  blindly  to  his  lodging  on 
Strait  Street,  and  when  he  was  visited  by  a  certain  Ananias,  a  Chris- 
tian of  Damascus,  he  listened  humbly  to  the  story  of  the  gospel, 
and  acknowledged  himself  a  disciple  of  the  Nazarene. 

Note  2.  His  Changed  Purpose.  Saul  was  the  son  of  a  Pharisee, 
and  had  been  educated  as  a  Jewish  rabbi.  To  own  allegiance  to 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah  was  to  take  a  far  more  radical  step  than  for 
a  Jewish  rabbi  to  become  a  Christian  minister  today.  He  exchanged 
a  position  of  influence  among  his  own  race  for  a  life  of  ignominy 
and  sure  persecution.  Only  a  most  powerful  mental  conviction 
could  have  made  him  do  that.  But  it  has  always  been  character- 
istic of  Christianity  that  it  changes  the  purpose  of  life  from  that 
wliich  is  self-seeking  to  that  wliich  will  be  of  service  to  others.  As 
soon  as  Saul  felt  the  change,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  announce  it 
publicly,  and  he  was  soon  in  danger  for  his  life.  Partly  that  the 
outcry  against  liim  might  have  time  to  pass  over,  and  partly  that 
he  might  adjust  himself  to  liis  new  experience,  he  went  into  retire- 
ment for  some  three  years  in  Arabia  (Gal.  1:17,  18).  There  he  was 
able  to  supplement  his  learning  by  coming  into  direct  spiritual  inter- 
course with  God  away  from  the  haunts  of  the  crowd.  As  Moses 
had  his  time  of  preparation  in  the  lonely  wilderness  of  Midian,  as 
Elijah  met  God  at  Horeb,  and  as  even  Jesus  liimself  had  his  testing 
time  in  the  wilderness  in  preparation  for  his  months  of  ministry,  so 
Saul  had  his  silent  time  with  God  and  came  out  fitted  to  be  Paul, 
the  greatest  of  the  Apostles  of  Jesus. 

Note  3.  His  New  Task.  The  Jewish  persecutor  had  seen  the 
vision,  and  had  come  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  Christ 
within  his  own  life.  Henceforth  he  was  to  be  an  interpreter  of 
Christianity  to  the  world.  It  was  not  an  easy  task.  He  had  found 
himself  at  first  distrusted  by  the  Christians,  and  for  years  he  gained 
no  conspicuous  position  among  them.  After  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  he 
returned  to  his  own  city  of  Tarsus,  though  he  must  have  known 
that  all  who  had  been  his  friends  there  would  turn  against  him. 
In  the  absence  of  definite  record  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
he  preached  the  gospel  of  Jesus  for  many  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia. 
Then  he  was  invited  to  Antioch,  and  became  a  recognized  leader 
in  that  city,  as  was  noted  in  the  first  lesson.     From  Antioch  he  went 


Three     jj^^  g^^j^  ^^^  Persecutor  Became  Paul  the  Missionary     13 

out  on  those  great  missionary  tours  that  have  made  him  famous  in 
Christian  history.  Naturally  he  carried  his  message  first  to  the 
Jews,  but  the  time  came  when  he  was  convinced  that  it  was  his 
special  mission  to  go  outside  his  own  race,  and  to  present  the  claims 
of  Christianity  as  a  religion  for  all  men,  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews. 
In  this  determination  he  was  going  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  most 
Christians,  including  the  leaders  of  the  Jerusalem  brotherhood. 
Some  Christians  who  had  been  zealous  Jews,  and  were  known  as 
Judaizers,  because  they  insisted  that  the  only  door  into  Christianity 
was  through  the  Jewish  church,  violently  opposed  Paul  on  his  first 
missionary  tours.  He  had  to  contend  with  superstition  at  Lystra, 
with  pagan  indifference  among  cultured  Athenians,  and  with  low 
moral  ideals  among  pleasure  lovers  at  Corinth.  He  had  to  warn 
Christians  of  Asia  Minor  against  philosophic  misconceptions,  and  to 
contend  with  legalists  at  Rome.  Sometimes  his  trusted  lieutenants 
deserted  him.  But  his  faith  in  his  mission  never  failed  him,  and 
his  conviction  that  God  was  with  him  never  faltered.  There  were 
times  when  he  seemed  to  be  lifted  out  of  himself,  and  to  be  conscious 
of  peculiar  intimacy  with  the  Unseen.  There  were  hours  when  he 
faced  the  prospect  of  death  at  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  Through 
all  he  was  the  same  courageous  soul.  And  when  he  knew  that  the 
end  could  not  be  far  away,  and  looked  back  over  the  years  past,  he 
could  say  with  deep  satisfaction:  "  I  have  fought  a  good  fight; 
I  have  kept  the  faith." 

Note  4.  Three  Missionary  Stages.  There  were  three  recorded 
stages  of  early  missions.  Jesus  Himself  was  the  first  missionary, 
and  He  supplemented  His  own  efforts  by  sending  out  His  disciples 
into  the  rural  hamlets  where  He  could  not  go.  A  second  stage  was 
begun  by  the  death  of  Stephen,  and  Christianity  was  carried  by 
unknown  propagandists  far  ana  wide,  even  to  the  large  cities  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Rome.  For  the  most  part  it  was  preached 
to  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes.  A  few  Gentiles  accepted  Christi- 
anity for  themselves,  among  whom  were  Cornelius,  a  Roman  cen- 
turion evangelized  by  Peter,  and  certain  inhabitants  of  Antioch. 
A  third  stage  was  entered  upon  when  Paul  and  his  companion 
Barnabas  went  out  with  a  commission  from  the  Christian  church 
in  Antioch  to  evangelize  the  Greek  and  Roman  world.  Paul  was 
especially  well  equipped  to  do  this  cosmopolitan  work,  for  he  was 
of  Hebrew  parentage,  was  born  and  reared  in  a  Greek  city  and  spoke 
and  read  the  Greek  language,  and  from  his  father  he  inherited  the 
privilege  of  Roman  citizenship.     Educated   with  care  by  Jewish 


14,  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^"°^ 

rabbis  in  the  schools  of  Jerusalem,  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
Hebrew  law,  logic,  and  dialectics,  that  proved  so  useful  in  later 
disputation.'  He  possessed  an  amount  of  courage  and  vigor  out  of 
proportion  to  his  small  size.  What  was  rarest  of  all  he  combined 
with  mental  acumen  the  faith  of  a  mystic,  and  trusted  where  he 
could  not  see. 

Note  5.  The  Sailing  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.  It  must  have  been 
a  greater  day  in  the  history  of  the  church  of  Antioch  when  its  first 
missionaries  sailed  away  from  the  pier  of  Seleucia,  the  harbor  of 
Antioch,  than  it  is  for  the  churches  of  America  when  a  large  company 
oi  missionaries  sail  from  an  Atlantic  or  Pacific  port  to  go  half  way 
around  the  world.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  to  make  only  a  short 
voyage  to  Cyprus,  and  then  across  to  Asia  Minor,  but  they  were 
pioneers  and  that  greatly  increased  their  importance. 

After  touring  Cyprus  and  crossing  to  the  mainland,  the  missionaries 
made  their  way  through  the  pass  of  the  mountains  that  skirt  the 
shores  of  Asia  Minor,  and  at  Galatian  Antioch  struck  one  of  the 
highways  running  east  and  west.  From  there  Paul  visited  other 
Galatian  towns,  and  then  returned  to  Antioch  in  Syria.  After  the 
status  of  Gentile  Christians  had  been  settled  by  a  conference  be- 
tween Paul  and  the  Christian  leaders  .at  Jerusalem,  Paul  made  a 
more  extended  tour  through  Asia  Minor,  and  even  penetrated  Mace- 
donia a.id  Greece  in  the  interests  of  the  new  faith.  Everywhere  he 
spoke  to  the  people  as  he  had  opportunity,  discussing  religion  in 
the  open  forum,  as  at  Athens,  in  the  schools  of  religion  and  philoso- 
phy, as  at  Ephesus,  or  in  Jewish  synagogues,  as  at  Antioch  in 
Pisidia.  Like  Stephen  he  argued  for  the  truth  of  Christianity  by 
reviewing  Jewish  history,  weaving  in  prophecies  of  the  Messiah,  and 
declaring  their  fulfilment  in  Jesus.  Wherever  he  went,  Paul  culled 
out  a  few  believers  as  a  nucleus  for  an  organization,  and  encouraged 
them  in  his  absence  through  messengers  and  by  means  of  the  letters 
that  are  preserved  in  the  New  Testament. 

Note  6.  Paul  Checkmated.  On  a  third  tour  Paul  revisited  the 
strategic  centers  of  the  Christianity  that  he  had  planted  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  then  settled  down  at  Ephesus  for  more  than  two  years. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  he  made  a  second  journey  to  Greece  and 
Macedonia,  and  after  that  made  his  way  to  Jerusalem  with  a  gen- 
erous offering  of  friendship  and  charity  to  the  needy  mother  church. 
Paul  hoped  that  this  might  cement  a  real  bond  of  fellowship  between 
the  Christian  church  of  the  Jewish  capital  and  the  churches  of  the 


Thret 


How  Saul  the  Persecutor  Became  Paul  the  Missionary     15 


Gentile  world.  Then  his  vision  widened  to  include  a  visit  to  Rome, 
and  an  evangelistic  tour  in  the  farther  West.  But  his  missionary 
enterprise  was  cut  short  by  the  hatred  of  the  Jews  who  brought 
about  his  arrest  at  Jerusalem.  From  there  he  was  taken  a  prisoner 
to  Csesarea  and  Rome,  and  later  was  executed  in  the  world's  capital 
by  command  of  Nero,  the  first  Roman  emperor  who  persecuted 
Christians. 

Note  7.  The  Death  of  the  Great  Missionary.  It  was  a  long  time 
from  the  stoning  of  Stephen  to  the  day  of  Paul's  death,  but  the  brave 
old  man  must  have  thought  of  that  earlier  occasion  in  his  youth, 
when  he  himself  was  in  the  band  of  executioners.  Then  the  faith 
of  Jesus  was  just  beginning  to  make  its  way;  now  it  was  winning 
victory  even  in  Rome.  He  himself  had  proved  faithful  to  the  light 
he  had.  When  the  head  of  the  great  Apostle  fell  beneath  the  execu- 
tioner's sword,  a  great  life  ended,  and  a  period  of  long  but  inter- 
mittent persecution  began,  yet  Christianity  survived  them  both 
because  it  contained  divine  truth  that  was  vital  to  human  life. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  How  did  Christianity  originate? 

2.  What  kind  of  life  did  Jesus  live? 

3.  What  was  the  character  of  His  teaching? 

4.  How  was  it  that  the  religion  of  Christ  did  not  perish  with  the 
death  of  its  Founder? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  is  the  scene  that  introduces  Saul  of  Tarsus  into  the  story? 


2.  How  did  his  experience  as  a  persecutor  travelling  to  Damascus 
affect  him  physically  and  spiritually? 


3.  What  were  some  of  the  diflSculties  against  which  Paul  had  to 
contend  in  his  ministry? 


4.  Who  were  the  Judaizers? 


16  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'"°^ 

5,  What  special  traits  of  character  did  Paul  display? 

6.  What  methods  did  he  use  to  influence  the  people? 


7.  How  did   there  come   to  be  Christian  churches  where  Paul 
preached? 


8.  Wh§,t  was  the  reason  for  Paul's  last  visit  to  Jerusalem? 


9.  When,  and  how,  did  Paul  die? 


10.  Point  out  the  significance  of  his  death. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Acts  22: 1-21;  Galatians  1: 13-24.     (2)  Stalker:  The  Life  of  St. 
Paul,  ch.  3.    (3)  Purves;  The  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  111-122,  177-203. 


P<**^  The  New  Religion  and  Old  Habits  17 

Lesson  4.    THE   NEW  RELIGION  AND    OLD   HABITS.    How 

Christianity  Affected  the  Social  Order. 

Sources. — 1  Corinthians;  2  Corinthians;  Romans,  chs.  1-3;  Acts,  ch.  15; 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  a  church  manual  of  the  second  century;  Tertul- 
lian's  Apology,  I,  chs.  42,  43;  Eusebius'  Church  History,  Book  VI,  ch.  43;  and 
numerous  other  writings  of  the  first  four  Christian  centuries. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson  so 
as  to  be  able  to  answer  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the 
failure  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  see  that  religious  worship  and  right  living  must 
go  together;  (6)  the  separation  of  Christianity  from  the  obligations  of  Judaism; 
(c)  the  brotherly  spirit  that  showed  itself  to  be  characteristic  of  Christians;  {d) 
the  labor  problem  can  never  be  solved  until  workingmen  work  in  the  right  spirit; 
{e)  the  real  test  of  Christianity  is  its  power  to  transform  individual  and  social 
life. 

3.  For  special  discussion  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  this  question:  What 
does  primitive  Christianity  teach  as  to  the  way  in  which  we  ought  to  act  to- 
wards existing  customs,  laws  and  established  institutions.? 

4.  The  note-book  work  for  this  lesson  should  include:  (a)  the  summary:  (6) 
a  sketch  of  the  places  of  worship  most  famous  in  Hebrew  history,  a  diagram  of 
the  temple,  and  a  brief  description  of  their  manner  of  worship;  (c)  a  list  of  the 
best  known  oracles  and  temples  of  paganism.  Or,  in  place  of  these  exercises, 
the  teacher  may  ask  for  a  short  sketch  of  slavery  among  the  ancients. 

Note  1.  The  Old  Habits.  When  Jesus  brought  to  the  world 
His  gospel  of  the  fatherly  love  of  God  and  of  brotherly  love  for  men, 
he  found  the  Jews  practising  a  religion  that  emphasized  correct 
forms  of  worship,  but  living  selfish,  narrow  and  often  corrupt  lives. 
When  Paul  carried  his  message  among  the  pagan  Gentiles  he  found 
them  recognizing  Greek  divinities  with  great  splendor,  as  in  the 
grove  of  Daphne  at  Antioch,  but  very  often  they  were  licentious 
and  guilty  of  cruelty  and  greed.  No  Jew  or  Gentile  could  become 
Christian  unless  he  lived  right,  however  scrupulous  he  might  be 
about  religious  ceremonies.  Both  Jesus  and  Paul  so  declared  with 
strong  emphasis.  So  it  came  about  that  wherever  Christians  con- 
gregated there  were  found  men  and  women  transformed  in  life, 
showing  traits  of  character  that  made  the  world  wonder,  but  that 
commanded  its  respect. 

Note  2.  Jewish  Ideas  about  Religion.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  unfortunate  experiences  of  the  Jewish  people  had  fixed 
certain  ideas  firmly  in  their  mind.  Their  ancestors  had  originally 
covenanted  with  God  to  be  faithful  to  Him,  but  many  generations 
of  the  fathers  had  deserted  Jehovah  for  other  gods.  Even  the 
sacred  temple  of  Solomon  had  been  neglected  by  them  and  the  Mosaic 
law  disregarded.     Then  complete  disaster  had  come  upon  them,  and 


18  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Uaam 

national  life  was  lost  altogether.  When  the  old  life  was  taken  up 
again,  and  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  were  rebuilt,  the  people  ac- 
cepted the  explanations  of  the  priests  that  God  had  made  them 
suffer  because  they  had  neglected  Him  and  His  law.  The  lesson 
was  well  learned.  For  more  than  four  centuries  before  Christ  the 
Jews  were  faithful  to  Jehovah,  and  so  scrupulously  did  they  keep 
the  ceremonial  law,  that  they  came  to  feel  that  this  was  all  impor- 
tant, and  neglected  personal  conduct.  It  is  not  strange  that 
Jews  who  were  led  by  Jesus  to  see  the  importance  of  right  living 
should  have  been  unable  to  shake  off  the  conviction  that  Judaism 
was  essential,  and  to  feel  that  Paul  was  a  renegade  to  his  own  faith 
when  he  admitted  Gentiles  to  an  equal  share  in  Christianity  without 
requiring  of  them  entrance  into  the  Jewish  church  and  obedience 
to  the  Mosaic  law. 

Note  3.  The  Conference  at  Jerusalem.  About  the  middle  of  the 
first  century  Christians  seemed  in  danger  of  ranging  themselves  into 
separate  Jewish  and  Gentile  churches.  To  prevent  this  Paul  met 
the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  church  in  Jerusalem  in  a  famous  conference 
in  that  city,  where  a  compromise  was  reached,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  Gentile  Christians  should  be  expected  to  abstain  from 
certain  practices  that  were  peculiarly  offensive  to  the  Jews,  but  in 
other  respects  were  free  to  practise  Christianity  without  any  cere- 
monial restraint  (Acts  15: 6-29).  This  was  in  reality  a  great  victory 
for  Paul  and  the  Gentiles,  and  it  insured  the  practical  unity  of  the 
primitive  Christians.  Later  on,  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  temple,  even  Jewish  Christians  came  to  see  that  the  essence 
of  their  religion  did  not  consist  in  ceremony  but  in  life,  and  the  habits 
of  centuries  fell  away. 

Note  4.  Gentile  Morals.  The  Jews  were  not  alone  in  thinking 
that  sacrifice  and  ceremony  made  up  religion.  Nowhere  in  the  non- 
Jewish  world  was  clean  living  and  unselfish  conduct  regarded  as  an 
essential  part  of  religion.  The  divorce  between  religion  and  morals 
was  complete  in  the  grove  of  Daphne.  It  was  the  same  throughout 
the  empire.  The  besetting  sin  of  the  age  was  impurity.  In  his 
very  first  letter  to  the  Thessalonians  Paul  charges  the  disciples  to 
keep  the  mastery  of  themselves.  "  It  is  God's  will,"  he  says,  "  that 
you  abstain  from  debauchery,  and  that  each  of  you  learn  to  get  the 
mastery  over  bodily  desires  in  purity  and  honor;  nor  must  any  man 
wrong  his  brother  in  this  matter  by  his  transgression.  .  .  .  For  God 
has  not  called  us  to  a  life  of  uncleanness,  but  his  calling  is  a  holy 
calling"  (1  Thessalonians  4:3-7).    Though  he  urges  the  Galatians 


Pour 


The  New  Religion  and  Old  Habits  19 


to  be  firm  in  the  maintenance  of  their  freedom,  he  has  to  remind  them 
that  hberty  is  not  hcense  (Galatians  5:13).  The  burden  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  chapters  of  1  Corinthians  is  the  same.  The  problem 
of  social  purity  was  peculiarly  difficult  in  the  atmosphere  of  Corinth, 
and  Paul  was  forced  more  than  once  to  remind  the  Christian  com- 
munity there  that  the  impure  should  have  no  more  place  in  their 
religious  body  than  they  had  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  To  the 
Romans  and  the  Ephesians  also  he  declared  immorality  of  all  sorts 
to  be  incompatible  with  the  new  social  order  that  was  expected  with 
the  coming  of  the  Messianic  King. 

Note  5.  How  the  Christians  Lived.  The  early  Christians  did 
not  talk  about  "  social  Christianity,"  but  they  lived  it.  The  mes- 
sage of  Jesus  was  social  as  well  as  personal,  for  it  had  reference  to 
a  man's  life  among  his  fellows,  and  it  affected  every  sphere  of  social 
life.  It  beautified  home  life.  Among  pagans  at  least  family  rela- 
tionships were  far  from  ideal.  The  head  of  the  family  had  small 
regard  for  his  wife  and  children,  and  slaves  had  no  rights.  In  the 
Christian  family  there  was  a  new  affection  among  its  members,  and 
slaves  were  treated  kindly.  (Cf.  Paul's  letter  to  Philemon  about 
the  runaway  slave  Onesimus.)  In  each  community  the  primitive 
Christians  formed  a  brotherhood,  helping  one  another  in  need,  even 
sharing  generously  large  amounts  of  property  as  in  Jerusalem  (Acts 
4:34-37).  They  worshipped  together,  and  ate  together  in  one 
another's  houses.  Christian  charity  and  brotherliness  became  pro- 
verbial among  their  neighbors,  and  pagans  did  not  hesitate  to  say: 
"  See  how  these  Christians  love  one  another." 

The  Christian  spirit  of  love  broke  down  the  barriers  of  race  and 
creed.  It  was  contrary  to  custom  for  people  of  alien  race  to  regard 
one  another  otherwise  than  as  enemies,  though  for  common  con- 
venience they  traded  peacefully  one  with  another,  and  were  re- 
strained from  open  hostility  by  Roman  authority.  But  Christi- 
anity made  aliens  brothers,  and  created  an  internationalism  that 
was  wholly  new.  Not  only  among  themselves  but  towards  pagans, 
too,  the  Christians  showed  the  same  spirit  of  kindness.  They 
helped  them  in  sickness,  and  even  in  pestilence  buried  them  when 
their  own  friends  forsook  them.  A  friendly  disposition  was  charac- 
teristic of  them  in  all  their  social  relations. 

Note  6.  The  Labor  Question.  Christians  had  their  share  in  the 
work  of  their  time.  They  did  not  become  idlers  because  they 
visited  religious  meetings,  occupied  themselves  with  charity,  and 
expected  the  existing  social  order  presently  to  pass  away.     It  would 


20  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


not  seem  strange  if  tliey  had  fretted  against  their  limitations.  Most 
of  them  belonged  to  the  lower  grades  of  society;  many  of  them  were 
slaves.  But  it  was  in  harmony  with  the  Christian  spirit  to  do 
their  duty  in  daily  tasks  rather  than  to  try  to  effect  economic  reform 
or  social  revolution.  Paul  in  all  his  writings  never  agitates  against 
labor  as  a  curse,  but  takes  his  own  place  in  the  ranks  of  tent-makers, 
and  declares  the  principle  of  industry:  "  If  any  man  will  not  work, 
neither  let  him  eat  "  (2  Thessalonians  3: 10). 

Note  7.  The  Test  of  Christianity.  So  primitive  Christianity 
justified  itself  in  the  lives  of  its  adherents.  A  religion  that  could 
transform  men  and  women  whose  lives  were  tainted  with  impurity 
and  shame,  whose  spirit  was  one  of  cruelty,  lust  and  greed  of  money 
and  pleasure,  whose  conduct  with  relation  to  industry  and  social 
betterment  was  negative  if  not  harmful,  was  a  force  in  the  midst 
of  the  Roman  and  Greek  world.  No  other  form  of  religion,  Jew  or 
Gentile,  could  match  it.  Like  every  other  religion  it  did  not  remain 
unaffected  by  the  atmosphere  in  which  it  was.  It  became  corrupted 
and  paganized  in  a  measure.  But  its  power  to  transform  human 
life  has  always  given  it  strength,  and  has  been  its  greatest  apolo- 
getic in  competition  with  other  faiths.  The  emphasis  shifts  from 
individual  to  social  life  and  back  again,  but  in  either  case  Christi- 
anity has  proved  itself  the  greatest  force  for  good  that  the  world 
has  ever  seen. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  distinguishes  Paul  among  early  Christian  leaders? 

2.  Trace  the  course  of  his  principal  tours. 

3.  In  what  did  he  excel? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  did  Jews  and  Gentiles  emphasize  most  in  their  religion? 


2.  What  must  be  said  about  their  conduct? 


3.  How  IS  Christianity  different? 


^<***^  The  New  Religion  and  Old  Habits  81 

4.  Explain  why  the  Jews  made  so  much  of  their  law. 

5.  How  did  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  come  to  an  agreement? 

6.  How  did  Paul  deal  with  the  tendency  to  impurity? 


7.  Can  a  person  be  really  a  Christian  now,  and  not  live  a  pure 
life? 


8.  Show  how  the  early  Christians  lived  a  social  Christianity — at 
home,  among  other  Christians,  with  pagans,  and  in  their  toil. 


9.  What  principle  condemns  alike  the  vagabond  and  the  idle  rich? 


10.  What  is  the  truest  test  of  Christianity? 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Paul's  Letter  to  Philemon.     (2)  Lightfoot:  Historical  Essays. 
pp.  1-71.    (S)  McGiffert:  The  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  64-74. 


22  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'"°" 

Lessons.     ONE    OF    THE    BROTHERHOOD    AT    EPHESUS. 

How  a  Christian  Lived  in  the  Late  First  Century. 

Sources. — Acts,  ch.  19;  Ephesians;  Rev.  1:  3;  2:  1-7;  Ireneeus'  Against  Here- 
sies contains  a  defense  of  Christianity  against  Gnosticism;  Justin's  Apology, 
chs.  06,  67;  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson,  and  be 
prepared  to  answer  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Notice  especially:  (a)  the  position  of  Ephesus 
and  its  religious  importance;  (b)  the  presence  of  both  Paul  and  John  in  Ephesus; 
(c)  the  tendency  to  emphasize  knowledge  among  learned  orientals;  (d)  the  meth- 
od of  worship,  and  the  memorial  service  of  the  Christians. 

3.  For  special  discussion  think  over  what  is  most  impressive  and  most  valu- 
able in  the  public  worship  of  the  church,  and  be  prepared  to  give  good  reasons 
for  your  opinion. 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  the  lesson  summary  written  out;  (6)  the  names  of 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  and  the  point  of  John's  special  message  to  each. 
(If  possible  draw  a  map  to  show  their  location.)  (c)  Select  two  psalms  that 
would  be  appropriate  for  the  church  service  of  the  early  Christians. 

Note  1.  The  City  of  Ephesus.  Ephesus  was  originally  a  Greek 
colony,  built  in  the  days  when  the  Ionian  Greeks  were  settling  along 
the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  it  became  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  cities  of  the  East  long  before  the  Roman  conquests  were 
made  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  region.  It  grew  over  hill  slope 
and  plain  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Cayster,  where  it  approaches 
the  sea.  Besides  the  advantage  of  a  location  on  the  coast,  it  was 
the  natural  market  for  the  trade  that  came  westward  down  the 
river  valleys  from  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  The  city  grew  in 
wealth  and  magnificence,  and  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era  outshone  other  cities  of  that  region.  It  was  interesting  reli- 
giously, for  it  was  the  center  of  the  worship  of  the  Greek  goddess 
Artemis  (or  Diana),  and  boasted  that  her  temple  was  one  of  the 
grandest  in  the  world. 

Note  2.  Christian  Teachers  in  Ephesus.  The  importance  of  the 
city  led  Paul  to  make  it  his  residence  after  he  had  completed  his 
second  missionary  tour.  He  remained  long  enough  to  establish  his 
own  faith  with  a  company  of  believers,  but  he  got  into  diflBculty 
with  the  guild  of  silversmiths  who  catered  to  the  worship  of  Arte- 
mis, and  was  forced  to  leave  the  place.  Apollos  was  another  Chris- 
tian leader  of  influence.  He  had  come  to  Ephesus  from  Alexandria, 
and  had  gone  again  before  Paul  arrived.  But  the  man  who,  after 
the  death  of  Peter  and  Paul,  is  recognized  as  most  influential  in 
Ephesus  and  the  neighboring  towns  within  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia  was  the  Apostle  John,  the  "  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved."     If,  as 


Fiv 


One  of  the  Brotherhood  at  Ephestis 


many  suppose,  he  was  the  same  John  who  wrote  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lation, his  spirit  is  revealed  in  the  brief  letters  addressed  to  the 
seven  churches  of  the  province,  and  that  are  preserved  in  the  first 
three  chapters  of  Revelation. 

Note  3.  In  the  Days  of  John.  It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  a 
Christian  of  that  Ephesian  church  in  the  days  when  John  wrote 
his  letter.  Many  a  Greek  by  that  time  had  enrolled  himself  in  the 
Christian  company  of  that  city.  His  chief  concern  was  to  live  so 
as  to  gain  the  approval  of  the  great  Apostle  who  wrote:  "Little 
children  love  one  another,"  and  of  the  greater  Master  who  com- 
manded His  disciples:  "Love  one  another  as  I  have  loved  you." 
In  such  a  spirit  he  was  an  example  to  all  around  him.  His  presence 
rebuked  their  sin;  his  contentment  and  patience  gave  them  courage 
for  their  work;  his  faith  in  the  good  made  them  respect  his  religion. 
His  life  was  in  striking  contrast  to  the  Epicurean  who  dawdled  at 
the  banquet  or  the  gaming  table,  and  declared  that  for  him  it  was 
enough  to  eat,  drink  and  be  merry  while  his  day  lasted;  as  for  the 
future  he  knew  nothing  about  it  and  cared  less.  The  Christian's 
religious  thinking  was  in  strong  contrast  to  the  scholarly  aristocrat 
who  esteemed  Greek  philosophy  above  all  else,  or  who,  if  inclined 
to  see  some  truth  in  Christianity,  felt  himself  above  the  crowd,  one 
of  the  elect  Gnostics  who  were  confident  that  to  them  alone  could 
come  the  highest  knowledge  for  which  life  was  worth  living.  The 
eastern  cities  were  full  of  such  aristocrats  of  learning.  One  of  the 
most  serious  dangers  that  Christianity  had  to  face  in  the  second 
century  was  Gnosticism,  which  restrict* )d  Christianity  in  its  highest 
attainments  to  those  who  were  intellectually  capable  of  understand- 
ing philosophy,  instead  of  promising,  as  Jesus  did,  that  the  Spirit 
of  God  should  take  of  the  deep  things  cf  God  and  interpret  them 
aright  to  every  believer,  ew  n  the  most  humble. 

Note  4.  An  Ephesian  Christian  in  the  Church.  The  Christian 
at  Ephesus  enjoyed  the  fellowship  of  other  Christians  in  the  church. 
The  churches  of  Jewish  Christians  were  modelled  upon  the  original 
company  at  Jerusalem  and  upon  the  organization  of  the  Jewish 
church;  the  churches  of  the  Greek  Christians  were  modelled  on  those 
and  on  the  religious  associations  of  various  kinds  that  were  common 
at  that  period  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  But  Christian  churches 
differed  little  one  from  another  in  their  organization  or  worship. 
It  is  therefore  not  difficult  to  think  of  the  Ephesian  Christian  as 
one  of  a  company  of  believers  in  Jesus,  banded  together  under  the 
oversight  of  a  board  of  elders  with  a  president-bishop  at  the  head. 


24  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


living  in  the  bond  of  sympathy  and  aiding  one  another  when  in 
need.  They  met  in  congregation  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  to 
worship  God,  to  encourage  one  another  in  the  Christian  way,  and 
to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Note  5.  At  Worship.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  service 
of  worship  in  the  primitive  church  was  not  very  different  from 
present  practice.  Prayer  was  an  essential  part  of  worship,  because 
Christians  beHeved  that  Christ  was  present  with  them,  and  prayer 
was  the  expression  of  their  communion  with  Him.  Public  reading 
of  the  Old  Testament  was  a  custom  received  from  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, and  when  a  Christian  congregation  was  fortunate  enough  to 
have  a  copy  of  one  of  Paul's  letters  or  a  narrative  of  the  gospel,  that 
too  was  a  source  of  public  instruction.  If  a  travelling  evangelist — 
usually  known  as  a  prophet  or  apostle — was  present,  he  was  listened 
to  with  great  respect;  if  no  special  speaker  was  there,  the  Christians 
talked  on  religious  topics  among  themselves.  The  old  Hebrew 
psalms  were  used  as  songs  of  praise,  and  to  these  were  added  certain 
Christian  hymns  and  chants,  like  the  songs  of  Mary  and  Zacharias 
given  in  the  gospel  narrative  of  Luke  (ch.  1). 

Note  6.  The  Lord's  Supper.  The  most  valued  part  of  worship 
was  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  Eucharist,  in  memory 
of  the  last  supper  of  Jesus  with  His  disciples.  It  was  a  frequent 
reminder  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  and  at  a  later  time  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sacrament.  In  the  church  of  Ephesus  in  the  time  of 
John  it  was  a  simple  memorial  feast  which  brought  the  Christians 
into  communion  with  God  and  strengthened  the  bond  of  their 
mutual  fellowship.  In  imitation  of  Jesus,  the  president  of  the  com- 
pany blessed  bread  and  wine  with  prayer,  and  deacons  distributed 
them  to  those  present  and  afterward  to  the  absent  ones  of  the  com- 
pany. This  simple  ordinance  of  the  s  <pper,  ^nd  the  initiatory  rite 
of  baptism,  constituted  the  only  ordinances  in  the  primitive  church. 
The  elaborate  sacraments  of  the  Catholic  church  were  introduced 
at  a  later  time. 

Note  7.  The  Hope  of  the  Second  Coming.  There  was  one  ele- 
ment in  the  Christian  faith  of  that  day,  especially  prominent  at  that 
period,  and  especially  strong  in  the  mind  of  John.  It  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  a  Christian  of  Ephesus  would  be  deeply  interested 
in  this,  the  hope  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ.  It  was  to  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  that  he  wrote  the  Revelation  to  encourage  them  to 
believe  that  the  day  of  triumph  was  near  at  hand.     Jesus  had  left  the 


Five 


One  of  the  Brotherhood  at  Ephesus  25 


promise  with  His  disciples  that  He  would  come  again,  and  when 
He  went  to  the  cross  and  the  tomb  and  finally  departed  altogether 
from  their  vision,  they  comforted  themselves  with  the  hope  that 
His  second  coming  would  not  long  be  delayed.  Paul  had  shared 
in  this  expectation,  and  had  emphasized  it  in  his  letters  to  the 
Thessalonians.  So,  too,  the  Book  of  Revelation  foreshadowed  to 
the  churches  of  Asia  not  only  the  events  that,  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer,  were  soon  to  take  place;  but  also  that  story  of  the  triumph 
of  the  King  which  has  thrilled  and  comforted  Christians  in  all  the 
centuries.  While  the  coming  of  the  kingdom  is  to-day  interpreted 
in  a  progressive  sense,  the  hope  of  consummation  has  not  died  out 
in  the  hearts  of  Christian  men  and  women.  So  the  writer  of  Reve- 
lation at  Ephesus  strikes  hands  with  the  Christian  of  the  twentieth 
century,  the  one  looking  forward  with  hope,  the  other  looking  back 
with  thanksgiving,  both  believing  that  the  times  are  in  God's  hands, 
and  that  whatever  the  Lord  of  all  the  earth  shall  do  is  right. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  was  the  attitude  of  Christianity  towards  the  Jewish  law? 

2.  What  effect  did  Christianity  have  upon  individual  conduct? 

3.  What  effect  did  it  have  upon  social  life? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  was  the  early  history  of  Ephesus? 


2.  Where  was  the  city  situated? 


3.  What  interest  is  attached  to  it  religiously  for  pagans  and  for 
Christians? 


4.  What  Christian  teachers  labored  in  Ephesus? 


5.  What  was  the  principle  of  John's  teaching? 


26  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"^°" 

6.  Contrast  a  Christian  and  an  Epicurean;   a  Christian  and   a 
Gnostic. 


7.  What  was  the  model  of  church  organization  in  Antioch? 

8.  What  was  the  method  of  worship? 


9.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  manner 
of  its  observance. 


10.  Describe   the  hope  of  the  second  coming,   and  explain   the 
belief  in  it. 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Bartlet:  The  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  144-149.  (^)  Ramsay:  The 
Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches,  ch.  16.  (3)  Burns:  The  First  Three 
Christian  Centuries,  pp.  43-46. 


Lesson  6.     CHRISTIANITY  IN  GREEK  LANDS  IN  THE  SECOND 
CENTURY.    Its  Progress  and  its  Opposing  Forces. 

Sources. — The  writings  of  Justin,  Clement,  Origen,  and  others. 
Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summaries  of  all  the  previous  lessons, 
and  be  ready  for  any  questions  which  the  teacher  may  ask. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the 
cities  that  were  centers  of  Christianity;  (b)  the  varieties  of  pagan  religion;  (c) 
the  relation  of  the  Christian  church  and  the  Roman  state;  (d)  reasons  why 
Christianity  grew  strong;  (e)  the  names  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  post-apostolic 
church. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topics  for  discussion:  Has  the  government  any 
right  to  interfere  with  religion.'^  Can  a  church  organization  properly  compel 
individuals  to  think  and  act  in  religious  matters  according  to  its  orders.!^ 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  the  lesson  summary  written  out;  (b)  a  short  para- 
graph about  each  of  the  following  names:  Polycarp,  Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origea. 


^*^         Christianity  in  Greek  Lands  in  the  Second  Century         27 

Note  1.  The  Extent  of  Christianity.  When  the  second  century 
began  Christianity  was  firmly  estabhshed  in  the  Roman  empire. 
In  spite  of  opposition  and  persecution  even  to  death,  the  expansion 
of  Christianity  had  gone  on  steadily.  It  found  its  way  to  the  centers 
of  population  first  of  all,  and  city  people  received  it  more  willingly 
than  the  rural  districts.  There  were  several  special  centers  of  the 
new  faith  in  the  various  parts  of  the  empire,  but  all  were  united 
in  the  bond  of  Christian  fellowship.  Jerusalem  had  been  the  original 
center  of  Jewish  Christians,  but  the  city  had  been  destroyed  in 
rebellion  in  70  a.  d.,  and  Jewish  Christianity  had  passed  out  of 
sight.  The  principal  Christian  city  remaining  in  Palestine  was 
Csesarea.  The  first  center  of  Gentile  Christianity  had  been  Antioch, 
and  it  remained  the  stronghold  of  Syrian  Christianity.  Interior 
Syria  northeast  from  the  river  Euphrates  had  become  widely  Chris- 
tianized. Through  the  efforts  of  Paul  and  John  Asia  Minor  had 
been  as  thoroughly  evangelized  as  any  part  of  the  empire,  and 
Ephesus  held  the  position  of  the  leading  Christian  city  in  that 
region.  As  Corinth  was  the  metropolis  of  Greece,  it  was  natural 
that  it  should  be  reckoned  as  the  most  important  Christian  center 
there.  Rome  was  the  leading  Christian  city  of  the  West,  and  Alex- 
andria of  Egypt.  In  the  Latin  countries  Christianity  did  not 
advance  as  fast  as  in  the  Greek  lands  of  the  East.  Altogether  the 
new  religion  had  gained  rapidly  in  seventy  years,  but  only  those 
strong  in  faith  could  believe  that  it  would  ever  gain  the  victory 
over  paganism  with  its  centuries  of  sacred  associations,  its  venerable 
altars,  its  priesthood,  its  vast  wealth  and  its  position  of  privilege 
in  the  state.     But  Christianity  kept  gaining. 

Note  2.  The  Weaknesses  of  Paganism.  Paganism  was  weak 
because  there  was  no  one  central  principle  that  proved  a  force  to 
hold  its  adherents  together  and  to  win  others.  It  was  weak  because 
it  was  represented  by  numerous  cults,  while  a  great  many  people 
had  lost  faith  in  all  of  them.  The  leading  people  kept  up  the  forms 
of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  worship;  but  they  did  not  believe 
in  them.  As  the  Romans  became  acquainted  with  the  religions  of 
the  East  through  their  travel  and  conquest,  they  imported  some  of 
them  for  themselves.  It  was  a  time  when  there  was  a  profound 
desire  for  a  religion  that  could  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  soul. 
Those  who  were  inclined  toward  the  supernatural  found  comfort  in 
a  species  of  spiritistic  religion  known  as  the  mysteries.  Those  who 
were  philosophically  inclined  accepted  the  ethics  of  Greek  Stoicism 
for  their  religion,  if  they  were  sober-minded;  if  they  were  fond  of 


^8  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


pleasure,  they  satisfied  themselves  with  the  rival  philosophy  of 
Epicureanism.  The  only  religion  that  appealed  to  all  alike,  and 
that  was  used  as  a  test  of  patriotism,  was  emperor  worship,  the 
veneration  of  the  emperor  as  representing  the  power  and  sanctity 
of  government.  The  common  people  were  contented  with  the  shell 
of  their  old  religions,  or  became  adherents  of  Christianity,  or  some 
other  of  the  foreign  importations. 

Note  3.  The  Chief  Rivals  of  Christianity.  In  the  mind  of  the 
people  Christianity  stood  on  a  level  with  the  other  imported  religions, 
and  there  were  times  when  it  found  some  of  them  sturdy  competi- 
tors. But  Greek  philosophy  and  the  Roman  government  proved 
its  most  formidable  rivals.  The  deeper  things  of  life,  the  problems 
of  existence  that  have  always  troubled  thoughtful  people,  interested 
the  Greeks  above  all  the  peoples  of  the  East.  Before  they  carried 
their  civilization  to  the  high  point  that  it  reached  at  Athens  in  the 
age  of  Pericles,  some  of  its  thinkers  were  trying  earnestly  to  solve 
the  problems  of  science  and  philosophy.  Socrates,  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle, in  the  period  following  the  age  of  Pericles,  were  the  most 
brilliant  thinkers  that  ancient  times  produced.  After  them  were 
the  two  rival  schools  of  the  Stoics  and  the  Epicureans.  The 
moral  te^:^.^ng  of  the  Stoics  was  the  best  that  Greece  had 
produced,  a«d  approached  in  excellence  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  It 
becam*^,  widely  popular,  and  appealed  to  the  intellect  even  more 
than  did  the  simple  gospel  of  Jesus.  As  time  passed  it  became  clear 
that  Greek  philosophy  was  to  be  the  educator  of  the  Christian 
leaders  of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  as  Judaism  was  in  the 
first  century.  Most  of  those  who  became  Christian  teachers  and 
heads  of  churches  were  trained  in  philosophy  before  they  became 
Christians,  and  so  the  development  of  Christian  thinking  took  on 
the  color  of  Greek  thought,  and  Christian  theology  was  very  greatly 
influenced  by  Greek  philosophy. 

The  Roman  state,  or  government  of  the  empire,  came  to  be 
thought  of  almost  as  if  it  were  a  god.  It  was  a  pagan  theory  that 
all  objects  and  institutions  had  a  divine  element  or  spiritual  sub- 
stance, and  as  the  government  of  the  empire  was  the  most  power- 
ful thing  in  the  world,  the  spirit  or  genius  of  the  empire  was  the  most 
important  object  of  religious  veneration.  It  seemed  more  real  if 
one  thought  of  it  as  personified  by  the  emperor,  so  emperor  worship 
came  to  be  the  one  real  religion  practised  by  all  the  people.  The 
Christians  were  an  exception.  Their  belief  in  one  God  made  it 
impossible  to  share  in  any  act  which  was  of  the  nature  of  worship 


Six 


Christianity  in  Greek  Lands  in  the  Second  Century         29 


to  any  other  creature.  Their  refusal  to  bow  with  others  in  celebrat- 
ing the  imperial  cult  made  them  objects  of  suspicion,  and  finally 
brought  upon  them  the  determined  persecution  of  the  state,  which 
saw  in  Christianity  an  intolerant  and  dangerous  rival  (cf.  Rev.  13: 15; 
14:9;  20:4). 

Note  4.  Christianity  a  Growing  Religion.  All  this  time  Chris- 
tianitj'^  was  growing  in  strength,  increasing  the  number  of  its  fol- 
lowers, and  organizing  itself  to  maintain  its  position  against  its 
rivals  and  its  enemies.  Its  surest  means  of  gaining  strength  was 
through  the  upright  lives  of  its  members.  Men  and  women  who 
were  an  object  lesson  of  what  Christianity  could  do  to  change  the 
bad  into  the  good  and  the  weak  into  the  strong,  persuaded  many 
more  persons  that  this  religion  was  what  they  wanted  for  themselves 
and  their  friends.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  gaining  converts  as 
long  as  Christians  lived  rightly,  even  though  Christianity  held  no 
place  of  honor  as  a  religion,  and  its  followers  might  be  called  on  to 
suffer  martyrdom. 

Another  means  of  gaining  strength  was  through  the  organization 
of  its  forces.  From  the  beginning  there  had  been  a  loose  form  of 
organization,  but  Christians  found  it  greatly  to  their  advantage  to 
have  a  regularly  organized  church  with  its  officers  and  its  forms  of 
worship,  and  during  the  second  century  the  church  became  much 
more  definitely  fashioned  into  an  ecclesiastical  system,  with  a  grow- 
ing sense  of  unity  and  strength. 

As  the  new  religion  found  it  necessary  to  organize  itself  into  the 
institution  of  the  church  in  order  to  strengthen  itself  against  the 
state  and  rival  religious  cults,  so  it  found  it  necessary  to  systematize 
its  thinking  to  offset  the  systems  of  thought  that  were  its  rivals 
in  the  East,  and  the  second  century  saw  the  development  of  Chris- 
tian ideas  into  a  partial  system  of  Christian  theology.  All  these 
processes  had  to  go  on  for  several  centuries  before  they  were  at  all 
complete,  but  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  process  had  begun, 
and  that  Christianity  was  not  to  be  overwhelmed  in  any  department 
without  a  struggle. 

Note  5.  The  Need  of  Leadership.  If  there  was  to  be  progress 
along  these  lines  of  development,  there  was  need  of  strong  leader- 
ship. When  Christianity  passed  into  the  second  century,  it  left 
behind  the  Apostles  who  had  been  its  natural  leaders  from  the  time 
of  Jesus  Himself.  Peter  and  Paul  had  suffered  martyrdom  about 
the  same  time  at  Rome.     For  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  Apostle 


30  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


John  had  been  the  mainstay  of  the  church  in  the  East.  The  men 
who  were  coming  on  the  stage  as  leaders  belonged  to  another  genera- 
tion who  had  not  known  Jesus  in  the  flesh.  It  was  a  critical  period 
for  the  new  faith.  The  men  who  came  to  be  most  trusted  were  the 
bishops  who  were  regarded  as  successors  of  the  Apostles  and  guard- 
ians of  the  correct  faith.  Among  these  were  Clement  of  Rome, 
Ignatius  of  Antioch  and  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  They  were  men  of 
influence  among  the  churches  and  were  faithful  leaders,  some  of 
them  suffering  martyrdom.  The  most  prominent  of  the  defenders 
of  Christianity  in  the  second  century  was  Justin,  who  was  known 
as  Justin  Martyr  because  he  died  for  his  faith.  He  wrote  an  apology 
in  defense  of  the  faith,  and  was  a  man  of  influence  among  learned 
men  because  he  was  well  educated,  and  had  accepted  Christianity 
after  he  had  tried  other  systems  of  faith  that  did  not  satisfy  him. 
Most  of  the  recognized  leaders  for  the  next  one  hundred  years  were 
educated  Greeks.  Irenseus  of  Lyons  in  southern  Gaul,  known  as 
the  founder  of  the  original  or  Old  Catholic  Church,  and  Clement 
and  Origen,  Christian  teachers  and  writers  in  Alexandria,  are  the 
principal  names  of  this  period.  They  were  men  of  influence,  and 
are  to  be  remembered  as  worthy  successors  of  the  Apostles. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lessons. 

1.  What  was  the  original  center  of  Gentile  Christianity? 

2.  What  was  the  condition  of  Greek  religion  in  that  city? 

3.  How  did  Christianity  come  out  of  Judaism? 

4.  Why  did  Jesus  fail  to  maintain  Himself  in  Palestine? 

5.  How  came  Paul  to  accept  Christianity  and  become  a  mis- 
sionary? 

6.  Where  did  Paul  go  on  his  tours? 

7.  How  did  Christianity  affect  religious  customs  and  social  con- 
duct? 

8.  Why  is  Ephesus  notable  in  Christian  history? 

9.  What  was  the  significance  of  the  Lord's  Supper? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  hope  of  the  second  coming? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 

1.  Outline  the  expansion  of  Christianity  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Roman  empire. 

2.  Mention  some  of  the  points  of  strength  and  weakness  in  pagan- 
ism. 


^^*         Christianity  in  Greek  Lands  in  the  Second  Century         31 

3.  What  varieties  of  pagan  religion  were  in  vogue? 

4.  What  were  the  two  most  dangerous  rivals  of  Christianity? 

5.  Outline  the  development  of  Greek  philosophy. 


6.  Explain  why  there  came  to  be  enmity  between  the  Christian 
church  and  the  Roman  state. 


7.  How  was   Christianity  able   to  gain  strength  in   the  face  of 
rivalry  and  opposition? 


8.  Why  was  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  a  critical  period? 


9.  Who  came  to  be  regarded  as  taking  the  place  of  the  Apostles? 


10.  Name  some  of  the  leaders  of  the  next  one  or  two  centuries. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Purves:   The  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  294-296.     (^)  Walker:  Great 
Men  of  the  Christian  Church,  ch.  1. 


82  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Lesson  7.    THE  CHRISTIAN  MARTYRS.    The  Story  of 
Perpetua. 

Sources. — The  story  of  Stephen  is  told  in  Acts  6:  8 — 8:  3.  Clement  of  Rome, 
known  as  the  first  of  the  Apostolic  feathers,  relates  the  death  of  Peter  and  Paul 
in  his  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  chapter  5.  The  policy  of  the  early  Roman  em- 
perors is  set  forth  by  the  Roman  writers,  Tacitus — Annals  XV.  44,  and  Pliny — 
Letters  X.  96,  97.  Some  of  the  later  widespread  persecutions  are  related  by 
Eusebius  in  his  Church  History,  Book  V.  chapter  1;  Book  VIII.  chapter  2.  The 
final  edict  of  toleration  is  given  by  Lactantius,  a  contemporary  Christian 
teacher,  in  a  treatise  entitled,  "On  the  Manner  in  which  the  Persecutors  Died," 
chapter  48.  The  Passion  of  St.  Perpetua  is  an  old  account  found  in  a  convent  in 
Jerusalem  in  1889. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson,  noting 
especially  the  contrast  between  the  weakness  of  paganism  and  the  growing 
strength  of  Christianity,  and  be  prepared  for  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  To  be  especially  noted:  (a)  the  general  in- 
tolerance of  religions;  (6)  the  policy  of  the  Roman  state  and  the  reasons  for  it; 
(c)  the  successive  periods  of  persecution;  (d)  the  story  of  Perpetua;  (e)  the  con- 
trast between  the  Roman  crowd  and  the  Christian  martyrs. 

3.  Consider  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  Should  a  person's  reli- 
gion make  any  difference  in  his  treatment  by  society,  or  affect  his  status  as  a 
citizen? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  the  usual  lesson  summary  written  out;  (6)  a  list  of 
persons  in  the  New  Testament  who  suffered  imprisonment  or  death  for  their 
faith;  (c)  a  description  of  the  Colosseum  in  the  days  of  the  gladiators,  or  as  it  is 
to-day  in  ruins. 

Note  1.  The  Roll  of  the  Martyrs.  The  author  of  the  Revelation, 
who  lived  at  the  time  when  Roman  persecution  was  beginning,  and 
who  himself  felt  the  heavy  hand  of  the  Roman  law,  pictured  among 
the  scenes  of  the  second  coming  of  Jesus  the  glorification  of  those 
who  had  come  out  of  great  tribulation,  and  who  were  witnesses  of 
the  faith  even  unto  death.  The  roll  of  the  ancient  martyrs  begins 
with  Jesus  Himself,  and  does  not  end  until  the  fiercest  persecution 
of  all  came  to  a  close  in  311  a.  d.  It  includes  the  names  of  illus- 
trious apostles  like  Peter  and  Paul,  of  bishops  like  Polycarp  and 
Cyprian,  of  delicate  women  like  Perpetua  and  Blandina,  and  of 
thousands  of  unknown  persons  who  refused  to  give  up  their  Chris- 
tian faith  at  the  demand  of  the  Roman  state. 

The  history  of  ancient  persecution  naturally  falls  into  two  divis- 
ions. The  Jewish  church  initiated  the  persecution  against  the 
Christians,  beginning  with  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus,  and  following  it 
with  the  death  of  Stephen  and  the  punishment  of  all  Christians 
on  whom  it  could  lay  its  hands.  Yet  Jewish  persecution  did  not 
result  in  wholesale  slaughter,  and  it  was  soon  over.  Roman  hostility 
to  Christianity  was  not  so  much  a  religious  as  political  affair,  and 


Seven 


The  Christian  Martyrs  33 


lasted  over  a  period  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  though  there 
were  long  periods  when  the  policy  was  not  enforced,  and  there  was 
no  general  persecution  before  the  middle  of  the  third  century. 

Note  2.  Religious  Intolerance  in  History.  Persecution  for  re- 
ligion's sake  has  been  common  in  all  periods  of  history.  The  Old 
Testament  records  how  intolerant  the  prophets  were  of  any  religion 
but  that  which  Moses  had  given.  In  New  Testament  times  the 
Jewish  church  was  intolerant  of  any  such  variation  of  religious 
teaching  as  that  which  Jesus  gave.  Pagan  Rome  persecuted  Chris- 
tians, and  Catholic  Rome  punished  Protestants.  Even  Protestants 
after  the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  persecuted  one 
another  to  death,  believing  that  it  was  God's  wilt  that  evil  should 
be  destroyed  even  if  it  meant  taking  human  life.  Even  to-day  one's 
religion  creates  favor  or  prejudice  towards  him  in  society. 

Note  3.  Roman  Policy.  The  Roman  state  was  not  intolerant  of 
the  various  religions  that  were  practised  by  the  people  of  the  prov- 
inces, as  long  as  those  religions  did  not  try  to  supplant  all  others, 
and  as  long  as  their  devotees  recognized  emperor  worship  as  the 
state  religion.  The  reason  why  Christianity  felt  the  opposition  of 
Rome  was  because  it  was  itself  intolerant  of  other  religions  and  was 
missionary  in  its  conduct;  but  most  of  all  because  Christians  would 
not  revere  the  emperor  as  divine.  For  this  reason  as  soon  as  Chris- 
tianity became  recognized  in  the  empire  it  became  the  general  policy 
to  treat  it  as  an  outlaw.  This  meant  that  it  had  no  legal  standing, 
and  that  the  governor  of  any  province  had  a  right  to  punish  any 
one  charged  with  holding  it.  Such  punishment  was  not  commonly 
visited  upon  Christians  as  long  as  they  kept  the  peace,  but  some 
of  them  foolishly  stirred  up  their  enemies,  courting  martyrdom  for 
the  glory  of  it;  others  suffered  from  the  personal  spite  of  enemies 
who  brought  indictments  against  them.  At  last  about  250  a.  d.  the 
emperor  instituted  a  more  determined  policy,  and  arrest  and  pun- 
ishment became  general  over  the  empire.  In  the  first  years  of  the 
fourth  century  it  was  a  death  struggle  between  paganism  and 
Christianity,  in  which  Rome  tried  to  pull  up  Christianity  by  the 
roots  and  Christians  suffered  terribly;  but  the  government  soon 
saw  that  the  Christian  religion  could  not  be  destroyed,  and  the 
policy  came  to  an  end  in  a  series  of  edicts  of  toleration. 

Note  4.  Periods  of  Persecution.  Some  of  the  more  notable 
persecutions  are  as  follows:  Nero,  the  basest  of  all  the  emperors, 
was  the  first  to  attack  the  Christians.     During  his  reign  (64  a.  d.) 


84  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


there  was  a  great  fire  in  Rome,  and  as  some  thought  he  was  guilty 
of  it,  he  charged  it  upon  the  Christians  to  divert  attention  from 
himself,  and  cruelly  punished  many  of  them  by  binding  them  in 
bundles  of  pitch,  and  setting  fire  to  them  to  burn  as  human  torches 
in  his  imperial  gardens.  Tradition  says  that  both  Paul  and  Peter 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Nero's  reign,  Peter  being  crucified  with  the 
head  downwards,  Paul  being  executed  by  the  more  merciful  and 
less  shameful  death  of  beheading,  because  he  had  the  privilege  of 
a  Roman  citizen. 

Some  of  the  best  of  the  emperors  persecuted  the  Christians 
severely  because  they  had  a  real  concern  in  maintaining  the  interests 
of  the  Roman  state.  So  Ignatius,  bishop  of  Rome,  suffered,  and 
Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  and  Justin,  who  himself  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity  mainly  through  witnessing  the  constancy  of 
a  Christian  martyr.  Not  a  few  pagans  so  admired  the  courage  of 
those  whom  they  saw  die  that  they  became  Christians  themselves. 
*'  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  was  the  seed  of  the  church." 

Severe  and  general  persecution  was  begun  by  the  emperor  Decius 
in  250  A.  D.  and  followed  by  Diocletian  in  303  in  the  severest  of 
all  attacks.  Special  efforts  were  made  to  dispose  of  the  bishops 
and  to  destroy  the  sacred  writings,  with  the  belief  that  if  these 
were  out  of  the  way,  the  ordinary  members  of  the  church  would  be 
more  easily  persuaded  to  give  up  their  religion.  Christians  at  Rome 
were  forced  to  resort  to  underground  catacombs  for  shelter  as  well 
as  for  burial  purposes.  Through  it  all  they  were  loyal  to  their 
faith. 

Note  5.  Perpetua  of  Carthage.  One  of  the  most  thrilling  tales 
in  the  whole  catalogue  of  the  Christian  martyrs  is  the  story  of  Per- 
petua. She  was  a  young  woman  of  good  family,  and  recently  mar- 
ried, residing  in  Carthage  in  the  early  third  century,  and  an  earnest 
Christian.  She  was  charged  with  practising  an  outlawed  religion, 
and  was  thrown  into  prison.  She  was  frightened  at  the  darkness 
and  disturbed  by  the  crowd  of  prisoners,  but  felt  comforted  by  the 
vision  of  a  golden  ladder  leading  up  to  heaven.  At  her  trial  Perpetua 
was  urged  to  recant  for  the  sake  of  her  aged  father,  and  he  himself 
begged  her  to  think  of  her  infant  child;  but  she  could  only  answer, 
**  I  am  a  Christian;  I  cannot  be  untrue."  She  was  condemned  with 
others  to  become  a  spectacle  in  the  arena,  where  the  people  of  North 
Africa  in  common  with  the  Romans  themselves  found  one  of  their 
greatest  delights  in  witnessing  animals  and  gladiators  torture  each 
other,  and  where  Christians  were  frequently  condemned  to  die.    The 


Seven 


The  Christian  Martyrs  35 


delicate  young  woman  entered  the  place  singing  psalms,  but  she 
was  put  with  another  Christian  into  a  net,  and  hung  up  to  be  goaded 
by  the  horns  of  a  bull.  She  tried  to  protect  herself,  lightly  clad  as 
she  was,  from  the  gaze  of  the  multitude,  but  she  seemed  not  to  feel 
the  punishment  of  the  horns  of  the  enraged  animal.  Death  did  not 
come  at  once,  and  for  the  time  being  she  was  removed  from  the 
amphitheater.  Then  she  was  told  she  must  die  by  the  hands  of 
a  gladiator.  Even  at  the  last  moment  her  courage  did  not  fail  her, 
for  when  the  gladiator's  hand  trembled,  she  guided  the  weapon  to 
her  own  throat,  and  fell  in  death  loyal  to  the  last  to  her  crucified 
Lord.  "  So  she  too  passed  over,  and  all  the  trumpets  sounded  for 
her  on  the  other  side."     For  her  it  might  well  be  written; 

"There  is  no  death;  what  seems  so  is  transition; 
This  life  of  mortal  breath 
Is  but  the  suburb  of  the  life  elysian 
Whose  portal  we  call  death." 

Note  6.  The  Roman  Arena.  There  never  was  a  more  striking 
contrast  than  that  between  the  heathen  populace  of  the  Roman 
empire  clamoring  for  the  death  of  a  gladiator  amid  the  excitement 
of  the  amphitheater,  and  a  Christian  woman  like  Perpetua,  dying 
voluntarily  for  her  faith  in  the  presence  of  the  brutal  mob.  It  was 
as  if  the  spirit  of  the  old  heathen  world  faced  the  spirit  of  the  new 
heaven  and  the  new  earth.  The  Romans  had  never  enjoyed  the 
drama  as  had  the  Greeks.  Fond  of  war,  they  were  most  happy 
when  real  carnage  was  given  them  for  sport.  Those  who  sought 
after  popularity  arranged  such  spectacles  on  a  great  scale.  Amphi- 
theaters, of  which  the  famous  Colosseum  was  the  largest,  were  built 
to  hold  the  crowds.  Men  were  trained  professionally  as  gladiators 
to  fight  animals  and  men  in  the  arena,  and  the  people  gloated  over 
their  death.  As  if  to  make  the  contrast  more  conspicuous,  the 
Christians  who  shrank  from  these  scenes  were  dragged  before  the 
crowd  to  add  to  their  sport,  and  one  after  another  found  the  bloody 
sands  the  shore  of  heaven.  History  can  never  blot  from  Hs  pages 
the  awful  record;  in  the  day  of  God's  remembrance  justice  is  sure. 

Note  7.  The  End  of  Persecution.  Galerius,  the  most  blood- 
thirsty of  the  persecuting  emperors,  acknowledged  his  failure  in  311, 
and  two  years  later  Constantine,  who  had  won  his  way  to  the  im- 
perial throne,  confirmed  in  313  a  former  edict  of  toleration,  made 
the  Christian  religion  legal,  and  before  his  death  accepted  Chris- 
tianity for  himself.  The  death  struggle  was  over  and  Christianity 
had  won. 


36  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Was  Cliristianity  prospering  at  the  end  of  .the  century? 

2.  What  made  paganism  weak? 

3.  What  made  Cliristianity  strong? 

4.  What  were  the  rivals  of  Christianity? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  do  we  know  anything  about  the  early  persecutions?    (Con- 
sult the  "  Sources  "  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  story.) 


2.  What  are  some  of  the  names  in  the  roll  of  martyrs? 


3.  What  are  the  natural  divisions  in  the  history  of  persecution! 


4.  Explain  clearly  why  the  Roman  government  outlawed   Chris- 
lianity,  and  what  it  meant  to  be  outlawed. 


5.   Tell  about  the  persecution  by  Nero. 


6.  What  effect  did  the  Christian  sufferings  have  on  some  of  the 
spectators? 

7.  Describe  the  final  severe  persecution. 


8.  What  were  the  catacombs? 


9.  Tell  the  story  of  Perpetua. 


^«*'  How  there  Came  to  be  a  Creed  37 

10.  Contrast  the  Roman  mob  and  the  Christian  sufferers  in  the 
arena. 

Reading  References. 
(1)  Uhlhorn:   The  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism,  pp. 
251-264.     (^)  Burns:  The  First  Three  Christian  Centuries,  pp.  83-121. 
{3)  Sienkiewicz:  Quo  Vadis,  ch.  55,  65. 


Lesson  8.     HOW  THERE  CAME  TO  BE  A  CREED.    The  Begin- 
nings of  Christian  Theology. 

Sources. — Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  Letter  to  the  Smyrnoeans,  ch.  5;  Irenaeus, 
Rule  of  Faith,  found  in  his  treatise  "Against  Heresies,"  Book  I,  ch.  10;  The  Apos- 
tics'  Creed;  The  Nicene  Creed;  Eusebius,  Church  History,  Book  VI,  tells  about 
Origen;  Socrates  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History,  Books  I-III,  continues  the  history 
of  Eusebius,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  Council  of  Nicea  and  the  life  of  Atha- 
nasius. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson,  and 
be  prepared  to  answer  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Notice  the  process  of  the  development  of 
Christian  thought,  especially  the  following:  (a)  the  need  of  a  creed;  (b)  the 
first  expressions  of  faith;  (c)  the  meaning  of  orthodoxy  and  heresy;  (d)  the  growth 
of  controversy;  (e)  the  Council  of  Nicea  and  its  results. 

3.  The  following  topic  should  be  considered  preparatory  to  class  discussion: 
Why  are  creeds  important? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  the  usual  lesson  summary  written  out;  (b)  definitions 
of  the  following  words — religion,  doctrine,  theology,  rule  of  faith,  creed,  ortho- 
doxy, heresy,  council;  (c)  the  Apostles'  Creed  written  in  full. 

Note  1.  What  do  you  Beheve?  Christian  doctrine  is  merely  a 
statement  of  religious  belief;  when  these  statements  are  reduced  to 
a  system,  the  result  is  Christian  theology.  Jesus  taught  detached 
religious  truths;  Paul  stated  these  and  others  in  such  a  way  that 
they  came  to  be  held  as  doctrines;  but  there  was  not  for  a  long  time 
any  system  of  theology.  The  fundamental  belief  for  which  the 
early  Christians  were  ready  to  die  was  that  Jesus  Christ  was  Messiah, 
Lord  and  Savior,  and  that  through  Him  life  was  made  right  and 
eternal.  When  thoughtful  Greeks  who  were  accustomed  to  tlie 
terms  of  Greek  philosophy  became  interested  in  Christianity,  and 
fell  to  talking  with  Christian  leaders,  they  put  to  the  Christians 
the  question:  What  do  you  believe.'^  To  answer  such  a  question 
individual  leaders  put  forth  brief  statements  of  their  belief,   and 


38  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


these  became  adopted  by  individuals  and  churches  as  rules  of  faith. 
They  were  embryo  creeds. 

Note  2.  The  Apostles*  Creed.  When  converts  received  the  rite 
of  baptism  upon  initiation  into  church  membership,  it  became  cus- 
tomary for  them  to  make  confession  of  their  faith  according  to  an 
accepted  formula.  The  formula  was  not  the  same  in  all  churches, 
though  all  resembled  one  another.  The  formulas  of  the  most  promi- 
nent churches  became  well  known  and  widely  used,  and  so  it  came 
about  that  a  baptismal  formula  used  in  the  church  of  Rome  in  the 
second  century  came  into  general  use  under  the  name  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed.  There  was  an  old  tradition  that  each  one  of  the  Twelve  had 
contributed  a  clause  to  the  whole  composition,  but  this  theory  is 
not  now  held.  The  only  sense  in  which  it  can  properly  be  called 
the  Apostles'  Creed  is  that  it  represents  the  faith  of  the  Apostles 
themselves.  The  original  form  of  the  creed  received  some  additions 
at  a  later  time,  and  in  its  enlarged  form  it  still  continues  in  use  by 
Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics. 

Note  3.  Schools  for  Christian  Catechumens.  Upon  these  simple 
foundations  the  Christian  church  built  slowly  its  system  of  theology. 
Doctrinal  questions  were  threshed  out  in  Christian  schools  by  those 
who  were  advanced  in  scholarship,  while  the  elements  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  were  taught  to  the  catechumens,  or  learners.  The  most 
famous  of  these  schools  was  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  in 
Egypt.  Clement  and  Origen  were  successively  at  the  head  of  this 
school.  Origen  became  its  head  when  he  was  not  more  than  eighteen 
years  old.  He  had  wonderful  ability  as  a  teacher  and  a  writer,  and 
it  was  he  who  welded  together  into  the  first  system  of  theology  the 
truths  of  Christianity  as  he  understood  them,  and  published  them 
in  a  book  that  he  called  First  Principles. 

Note  4.  Orthodoxy  and  Heresy.  It  could  not  be  expected  that 
all  Christian  scholars  would  see  Christian  truth  in  the  same  way. 
There  had  been  no  fixed  definition  of  Christianity  given  in  the  New 
Testament.  Jesus  had  laid  down  certain  principles,  and  each  writer 
interpreted  and  applied  them  in  his  own  way.  But  there  were 
certain  beliefs  upon  which  it  was  easy  to  agree,  such  as  the  state- 
ments of  the  Apostles'  Creed;  these  were  accepted  by  Christians 
generally  and  were  believed  to  be  in  harmony  with  Apostolic  teach- 
ing; and  so  the  bishops,  who  were  regarded  as  successors  of  the 
Apostles,  were  expected  to  guard  them  jealously.  If  one  believed 
these  he  was  orthodox;  if  he  departed  from  them  he  was  a  heretic. 


^*^**  How  there  Came  to  he  a  Creed  39 

We  may  almost  say  that  heresy  was  an  overemphasis  of  a  half 
truth.  We  usually  emphasize  that  which  has  a  large  place  in  our 
experience.  So  the  Gnostics,  for  instance,  being  inclined  to  value 
knowledge,  made  spiritual  knowledge  a  test  of  Christianity,  and  in 
doing  so  overemphasized  a  half  truth,  and  were  reckoned  by  the 
church  generally  as  heretics.  So  the  Montanists  in  the  second 
century,  believing  much  in  the  prophetic  enlightenment  of  indi- 
viduals by  the  Holy  Spirit,  overemphasized  that  which  had  been 
only  a  temporary  phenomenon  in  the  Apostolic  church,  and  they 
were  reckoned  as  heretics  by  the  regular  orthodox  church. 

Note  5.  The  Growth  of  Controversy.  Since  Christianity  was 
very  largely  in  Greek  hands  for  the  first  four  or  five  centuries,  its 
leaders  were  well  trained  in  Greek  thought;  and  since  the  Greek 
mind  delighted  in  the  discussion  of  profound  problems  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  it  is  not  strange  that  Greek  Christianity  should  have 
become  a  subject  about  which  there  was  much  controversy.  The 
churches  were  greatly  exercised  over  the  question  of  the  nature  of 
God,  and  the  relation  of  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  Father. 
This  developed  into  what  is  known  as  the  controversy  over  the 
Trinity.  Then  they  tried  to  solve  the  difiicult  problem  of  the  person 
of  Christ  and  theologians  could  not  agree  over  His  divinity  and 
humanity  any  more  than  they  can  to-day.  Only  in  those  days  there 
was  but  one  church.  Christians  believed  in  unity  of  organization 
and  unity  of  belief,  and  were  not  content  with  letting  those  who 
thought  alike  organize  themselves  into  different  denominations. 
It  was  considered  essential  that  all  Christians  should  think  alike, 
and  the  bishops  tried  to  harmonize  the  differences  of  opinion  in  con- 
ferences, but  with  little  success. 

Note  6.  The  Council  of  Nicea.  When  it  seemed  as  if  the  one 
Christian  church  would  be  split  to  pieces,  the  emperor  Constantine 
interfered  and  called  a  general  council  of  all  the  bishops  of  the 
Christian  church  to  be  held  at  Nicea  near  Constantinople  in  the 
year  325.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Constantine  had  granted 
relief  from  persecution  only  a  few  years  before,  and  now  believing 
that  the  church  was  in  as  much  danger  from  the  controversies  as 
it  had  been  from  persecution,  he  took  this  step  to  secure  harmony. 
After  long  discussion  and  serious  differences  of  opinion  the  members 
of  the  council  were  able  to  find  a  common  ground  on  which  they 
could  stand,  except  for  a  few  extremists  who  were  expelled  from  the 
council.    The  council  thereupon  drew  up  the  original  form  of  what 


40    ^  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


is  known  in  history  as  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  which  was  to  be  hence- 
forth the  standard  of  orthodoxy. 

Note  7.  Athanasius.  The  man  who  had  most  to  do  with  bring- 
ing about  a  settlement  at  Nicea  was  a  certain  young  representative 
of  the  Alexandrian  church  named  Athanasius.  There  is  a  famous 
creed,*  named  after  him  the  Athanasian  Creed,  with  which  he  had 
nothing  to  do.  The  Nicene  Creed  represented  the  opinions  of  him- 
self and  his  party,  and  after  amendment  at  a  later  council  that  creed 
passed  into  general  use  in  the  church.  But  for  a  time,  in  spite  of 
the  apparent  agreement  at  Nicea,  there  was  much  difference  of 
opinion,  and  the  controversy  went  on  between  Athanasians  and 
Arians  during  most  of  the  fourth  century.  When  this  controversy 
respecting  the  Trinity  was  brought  to  an  end,  another  question 
respecting  the  person  of  Christ  proved  a  disturbing  factor,  and 
required  other  councils  for  its  settlement.  During  most  of  these 
controversies  there  were  two  opposing  parties,  one  representing  the 
Christian  theology  of  Alexandria,  and  the  other  of  Antioch.  There 
were  many  unpleasant  scenes  when  bishops  forgot  their  dignity  and 
the  character  of  their  religion,  and  resorted  to  abusive  language  and 
even  to  blows  in  their  assemblies.  At  one  conference  an  aged  bishop 
was  so  roughly  handled  that  he  died  soon  after.  Such  a  scene  was 
in  painful  contrast  to  the  death  of  Polycarp,  who  died  confessing 
his  faith  in  Christ,  but  who  needed  no  disorderly  council  to  define 
that  faith  for  him. 

Note  8.  The  Results  of  the  Controversy.  Such  were  the  unfor- 
>tunate  results  of  the  theological  controversy.  Orthodoxy  was  de- 
fined, and  uniformity  in  doctrine  was  obtained,  but  at  fearful  cost. 
The  church  of  Christ  lost  its  first  enthusiasm,  and  forgot  that  its 
fundamental  principle  of  conduct  was  brotherly  love.  It  had  wan- 
dered far  from  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  the  exhortations  of  the 
Apostle  John.  It  gained  in  numbers,  in  wealth  and  in  outward 
prosperity  through  the  cessation  of  persecution;  but  it  lost  its  spirit- 
ual force  and  the  qualities  which  made  it  truly  great. 

This  has  been  the  usual  result  of  disputes  over  doctrine.  Theology 
has  its  place,  but  it  is  not  religion,  only  the  science  of  religion. 
Religion  has  to  do  with  the  life  of  the  soul;  theology  is  the  product 
of  the  intellect. 

It  was  inevitable  that  Greek  Christianity  should  be  intellectual- 
ized,  for  that  was  in  harmony  with  the  Greek  spirit.  It  was  a 
necessary  part  of  the  process  of  development  through  which  Chris- 
tianity passed.     The  church  fteeded  to  define  its  creed,  as  it  needed 


^*^*'  How  there  Came  to  he  a  Creed  41 

to  perfect  its  organization,  but  neither  creed  nor  organization  is  the 
essential  thing  in  Christianity — that  is  the  spirit  of  love  animating 
life. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  was  the  Roman  policy  towards  Christianity? 

2.  What  are  the  important  points  in  the  history  of  the  persecution 
of  the  Christians? 

3.  How  were  Christians  punished? 

4.  What  was  the  final  outcome? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  was  the  simple  faith  of  the  early  Christians? 


2.  When  did  it  become  necessary  for  them  to  define  their  faith? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  a  rule  of  faith? 

4.  Describe  the  origin  of  the  Apostles*  Creed.     Is  it  still  in  use? 

5.  Describe  the  Alexandrian  school  of  Origen, 

6.  What  was  understood  by  orthodoxy  and  heresy? 

7.  Why  did  there  come  to  be  fierce  theological  controversy? 

8.  What  attempts  were  made  to  reach  conclusions? 


42  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  '^"^''" 

9.  Who  was  Athanasius?     . 

10.  What  was  the  result  of  the  councils? 


Reading  References. 
{!)  Article  "  Creeds  "  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  11th  edition 
(2)  Gumlich:  Christian  Creeds  and  Confessions,  chs.  1,  2. 


Lesson  9.     HOW  THE  CHURCH  BECAME  A  WORLD  POWER. 

The  Ambition  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Sources. — Romans  16:5;  1  Timothy,  ch.  3;  4:14;  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles;  the  letters  of  Ignatius;  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  Book  II;  Cyprian: 
On  the  Unity  of  the  Church;  Leo  I:  Sermon  on  Peter  s  Headship. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson,  and  be 
prepared  to  answer  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the 
beginnings  of  the  church;  (6)  the  growth  in  importance  of  the  bishop:  (c)  the 
position  of  Rome;  (d)  how  the  bishop  of  Rome  became  pope. 

3.  The  following  topic  is  for  discussion  in  class:  What  is  the  value  of  the 
church  in  the  community,  and  how  can  it  be  made  more  useful? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  is  properly  written.  (6) 
Write  out  the  steps  in  the  progress  of  church  organization,  noting  at  least  one 
event  in  each  century,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  duties  of  the  bishop  after  he  had 
become  head  of  a  diocese. 

Note  1.  The  Greek  vs.  the  Latin  Fathers.  The  chief  interest  of 
the  Greek  fathers  of  the  church  was  in  correct  thinking  about 
religion.  The  emphasis  of  the  Latin  fathers — except  Augustine, 
the  greatest  of  them  all,  who  waged  a  third  theological  controversy 
and  stands  as  the  greatest  theologian  of  the  whole  church — was 
upon  proper  worship  and  a  strong  church  organization.  It  was  the 
Latin  nature  of  the  West  to  be  most  interested  in  externals,  and  as 
Christianity  ceased  to  be  regulated  by  Greek  councils  after  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century,  Rome  became  the  center  of  church  affairs, 
and  the  church  itself  became  of  more  consequence  than  the  life  of 
its  members  or  their  thoughts  about  religion.  From  that  time  for 
a  thousand  years  the  Roman  or  Latin  influence  was  supreme. 


Nine 


How  the  Church  Became  a  World  Power  43 


Note  2.  How  there  Came  to  Be  a  Church.  Jesus  did  not  found 
a  Christian  church  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  Jemsh  church.  He 
had  almost  nothing  to  say  about  a  church.  The  first  disciples  con- 
tinued to  worship  in  the  temple,  and  Paul  was  a  frequent  attendant 
at  the  Jewish  synagogues.  After  Jesus  ceased  to  be  with  them,  the 
first  disciples  met  together  weekly  or  oftener  to  keep  in  memory 
their  Master  and  His  death  and  resurrection,  usually  in  the  house 
of  one  of  the  company  (Rom.  16:5;  Philemon  vs.  2).  They  were 
all  bound  together  as  a  brotherhood  with  a  common  faith  and  hope, 
and  a  love  one  for  another  that  showed  itself  in  great  generosity. 
At  these  meetings  they  prayed  and  sang  together,  and  exchanged 
words  upon  a  common  theme. 

But  their  enemies  pushed  them  out  of  the  Jewish  church,  and 
presently  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  were  destroyed.  Then  Gentile 
Christian  churches  became  more  numerous  than  Jewish  Christian 
churches,  and  it  became  necessary  to  have  some  organization  to 
bind  the  assemblies  together,  to  direct  their  worship  and  their 
charity,  and  to  represent  Christianity  in  the  world.  The  natural 
models  of  organization  were  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  the  religious 
club  that  was  common  among  the  Greeks  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  particular  form  of  religion.  Organized  after  this  fashion  a  Chris- 
tian church  in  any  community  was  directed  by  a  board  of  elders, 
or  presbyters,  one  of  whom  was  chief,  and  was  called  overseer  or 
bishop,  all  chosen  by  the  church  members.  It  was  his  special  task 
to  administer  the  charities  of  his  church,  and  in  this  he  was  assisted 
by  several  deacons.  Spiritual  leadersliip  during  the  first  century 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Apostles,  and  of  so-called  prophets  and  teach- 
ers, who  were  regarded  as  divinely  instructed  to  inspire  the  people  to 
Christian  living.  Some  of  them  were  residents  iq,  one  place;  some 
travelled  about  like  modern  evangelists. 

Note  3.  How  the  Bishop  Became  Supreme.  The  chief  interest 
of  the  primitive  church  was  in  spiritual  living  and  helpful  charity, 
and  in  missionary  aetivity.  But  by  degrees  the  original  enthusiasm 
declined.  More  attention  was  given  to  the  things  in  which  Gentile 
religionists  were  interested — orthodox  thinking  and  the  forms  of 
worship.  At  the  same  time  the  churches  were  losing  confidence  in 
the  self-appointed  prophets  and  teachers.  By  a  natural  and  speedy 
process  the  bishop  became  spiritual  teacher  as  well  as  business 
manager,  and  came  to  be  looked  to  as  the  defender  of  the  true  faith 
and  director  of  the  service  of  worship.  About  the  same  time  pagan 
influence  was  making  itself  felt  in  the  matter  of  the  ordinances  of 


44  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Instead  of  being  maintained  as 
simple  rites,  they  were  becoming  more  formal,  and  were  being 
regarded  as  sacraments,  that  is,  sacred  in  themselves  and  having 
efficacy  to  make  one  religious.  Eventually,  to  partake  of  the  sac- 
rament of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  to  repeat  the  sacrifice  of  Christ's 
body  and  blood,  and  the  bishop  and  presbyter  who  administered  it 
became  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  a  priest,  like  the  priests  of  the 
temples  of  old.  By  this  process  the  primitive  church  became  the 
Catholic  church  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  became 
the  mass.  It  was  all  perfectly  natural,  as  it  was  natural  for  the 
theological  controversies  to  take  place.  The  growth  of  thought  and 
the  development  of  organization  and  worship  were  both  necessary, 
but  it  was  unfortunate  that  they  should  have  destroyed  the  sim- 
plicity and  the  spontaneous  enthusiasm  of  the  early  days. 

Note  4.  The  Bishop  in  his  Diocese.  Originally  each  local  church 
had  its  bishop.  Naturally  some  of  the  bishops  were  more  promi- 
nent than  others,  either  because  of  their  personal  ability  or  because 
of  the  importance  of  the  place  in  which  they  lived.  The  bishop 
of  Antioch  was  a  greater  man  than  the  bishop  of  some  cross-roads 
village.  Presently  the  great  bishops  swallowed  up  the  little  ones, 
just  as  the  business  trusts  in  recent  years  have  disposed  of  individual 
merchants  and  manufacturers.  The  local  enterprise  continued,  but 
it  was  under  the  control  of  the  powerful  bishop.  All  the  ecclesiastical 
territory  that  he  controlled  was  called  his  diocese.  So  it  came  about 
that  the  bishops  were  district  managers,  reserving  to  themselves  the 
most  important  rights;  while  the  local  church  officials,  who  were 
simply  priests,  were  responsible  for  their  administration  to  the 
bishop,  and  were  restricted  in  their  control  of  their  parishes.  Some 
of  the  most  prominent  and  powerful  bishops  had  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop, and  the  bishops  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Constantinople,  the 
new  capital,  and  Rome,  the  old  capital,  were  dignified  still  further 
with  the  title  of  patriarch. 

■j 
Note  5.  The  Tendency  toward  Unity.  It  is  plain  that  there  was 
a  steady  tendency  away  from  democratic  simplicity  in  organiza- 
tion, as  there  was  in  worship.  Instead  of  each  church  managing 
its  own  affairs,  it  was  now  part  of  a  regular  system  controlled  by 
an  absent  official.  The  note  of  authority  was  heard  more  and  more 
after  Christianity  became  the  imperial  religion,  and  everybody  be- 
came a  member  of  the  church.  There  was  a  growing  consciousness 
of  the  unity  of  the  one  Christian  church.     Cyprian,  who  was  bishop 


^*^  How  the  Church  Became  a  World  Power  45 

of  the  church  of  Carthage  about  250  A.  D.,  and  who  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  TertulHan,  the  first  prominent  Latin  father,  did  not  hesitate 
to  say:  "The  episcopate — that  is,  the  system  of  bishops — is  one; 
it  is  shared  among  individuals,  yet  each  possesses  the  entire  author- 
ity. The  Church  also  is  one,  though  she  is  widely  extended  among 
the  multitude."  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  in  northern  Italy  in 
the  fourth  century,  did  not  hesitate  to  exercise  his  authority  against 
a  Roman  emperor  who  had  committed  a  crime,  forbidding  liim  to 
enter  a  Christian  church  until  a  period  of  repentance  had  passed. 
Augustine,  the  greatest  of  the  Latin  fathers,  stood  zealously  for  the 
same  principles  of  unity  and  authority  early  in  the  fifth  century. 
But  as  yet  there  was  no  one  recognized  head. 

Note  6.  The  Ambition  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  As  early  as  the 
last  part  of  the  second  century  the  Christian  church  had  so  per- 
meated the  Roman  empire  that  it  might  properly  be  called  a  catholic 
or  universal  church.  Irenseus,  a  bishop  of  Gaul,  but  not  a  Latin 
father  like  the  others  named,  did  so  much  to  unify  the  church  in 
his  day  that  he  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  founder  of  the  Old  Catholic 
church.  It  was  sufiiciently  like  what  we  know  as  the  Catholic 
church  in  its  organization  and  ceremonies  that  the  name  will  not 
trouble  us,  but  it  was  not  the  Roman  Catholic  church  because  it 
was  not  yet  controlled  by  Rome.  But  at  an  early  period  the  Roman 
bishops  had  a  vision  of  their  church  becoming  the  head  of  Christen- 
dom. It  was  not  a  wild  dream,  for  Rome  had  been  the  center  of 
government  in  the  empire  for  centuries.  Why  might  not  the  Roman 
church  take  the  place  of  the  Roman  empire  which  was  declining 
and  plainly  destined  to  come  to  an  end.?  This  was  the  ambition 
which  dazzled  the  eyes  of  many  a  Roman  bishop  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.     They  lacked  only  the  power  to  bring  it  about. 

Note  7.  How  the  Ambition  was  Realized.  Rome  had  the  advan- 
tage of  being  the  only  great  church  in  the  West.  In  the  East  Anti- 
och,  Alexandria  and  Constantinople  were  rivals  for  supremacy.  It 
was  easy  for  Rome  to  assume  the  position  of  umpire  in  disputes. 
In  the  theological  controversies  and  the  meetings  of  the  councils 
the  bishops  of  Rome  had  influence.  Every  opportunity  was  im- 
proved to  strengthen  the  Roman  position.  In  the  West  the  Roman 
bishop  was  looked  to  as  civil  ruler  and  protector  in  the  disturbed 
times  after  Constantine  moved  his  capital  to  its  new  seat  in  the 
East.  Finally  at  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  a  masterful  man 
became  bishop  of  Rome,  who  realized  in  fuller  measure  than  any 


46  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


who  preceded  him  supremacy  in  the  whole  church.  This  was  Leo, 
and  he  is  known  in  history  as  pope  Leo  I.  From  that  time  it  is 
proper  to  speak  of  the  Roman  bishops  as  popes.  Leo  was  declared 
by  the  emperor  to  be  supreme  head  of  the  church,  and  the  claim 
was  never  given  up,  though  it  could  not  always  be  enforced.  When 
barbarian  invaders  threatened  the  city  of  Rome,  the  bishop  pacified 
them  by  going  in  person  to  intervene.  A  hundred  and  fifty  years 
later  another  great  bishop  named  Gregory  I.  was  able  to  do  even 
more  than  Leo  to  strengthen  the  papacy,  and  before  the  Middle 
Ages  were  over  the  pope  of  Rome  was  acknowledged  not  only  as 
head  of  the  church,  but  sovereign  also  over  the  kings  and  princes 
of  Europe.  Before  that  time,  however,  eastern  Europe  had  sepa- 
rated from  the  Roman  church  and  organized  as  a  Greek  Catholic 
church,  and  Asia  and  North  Africa  had  become  Mohammedan,  so 
that  the  pope  became  only  a  western  sovereign. 

Note  8.  A  Striking  Contrast.  There  was  a  vast  difference  be- 
tween the  infant  church  in  Jerusalem  practising  the  principles  of 
brotherhood,  and  the  Church  of  Rome,  proud  in  its  supreme  posi- 
tion at  the  head  of  a  powerful  and  rich  ecclesiastical  organization. 
The  splendid  rule  that  the  early  disciples  of  Jesus  had  dreamed  of 
as  the  kingdom  of  God  had  come  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  representa- 
tive of  Christianity  in  the  old  capital  city  of  Rome.  It  is  not  diflS- 
cult  to  decide  which  was  more  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of 
Jesus,  but  the  strength  and  position  of  the  papacy  proved  a  great 
advantage  to  Christianity  in  the  troublous  years  that  followed. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Why  were  creeds  necessary? 

2.  What  preceded  the  universal  creeds? 

3.  How  were  forms  of  confession  agreed  upon? 

4.  What  was  the  most  famous  council? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  the  Latin  fathers  differ  from   the  Greeks  in   their 
interests? 


2.  Why  was  an  effective  church  organization  necessary? 


3.  What  different  kinds  of  leaders  were  there? 


^'"'  How  the  Church  Became  a  World  Power  47 

4.  Explain  how  the  bishops  came  to  be  so  important. 

5.  Hrw  did  the  Lord's  Supper  become  changed  into  the  mass? 


6.  Name  some  of  the  supporters  of  the  theory  of  the  unity  and 
authority  of  the  church.     Were  they  Latin  or  Greek  fathers? 


7.  Explain  the  ambition  of  the  bishops  of  Rome. 


8.  What  advantage  did  Rome  enjoy  over  the  eastern  cities? 


9.  Why  is  it  proper  to  speak  of  Leo  as  the  first  pope? 


10.  What  later  pope  helped  to  make  Rome  great? 


Reading  References. 
(i)  Robinson:  History  of  Western  Europe,  pp.  18-24,  44-55.     (2) 
Emerton:  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  9. 


48  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Lesson  10.     THE  BARBARIAN  DELUGE.     How  the  Ancient 
Empire  Became  Medieval  Europe. 

Sources. — Histories  of  Greek  and  Latin  writers  like  Ammianus  and  Jordanes; 
letters,  and  treatises  on  theology  and  government,  like  Augustine's  City  of  God. 
Tacitus  in  the  Germania  gives  a  description  of  the  Germans. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  The  first  matter  to  receive  attention  should  be  the 
summary.  See  that  it  is  properly  written  out,  read  it  over,  and  be  prepared  for 
questions  on  it  in  the  class.  This  time  re\dew  the  summaries  of  the  last  four 
lessons. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  failure  of  state  and 
church  to  save  the  empire,  and  some  of  the  reasons  for  it;  (6)  the  names  of  the 
leading  German  tribes,  how  they  broke  over  the  frontier,  and  where  they  settled; 
(c)  the  mingling  of  the  two  races;  {d)  the  mission  of  the  Christian  church,  and 
its  gain  in  authority. 

3.  For  discussion  think  over  how  Christianity  can  help  to  solve  race  problems, 
like  the  negro  problem  in  the  South,  and  the  relation  of  white  men  and  Asiatics 
in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  The  writing  of  the  summary  is  the  first  task,  (b)  A 
map  should  be  drawn  to  show  the  countries  which  the  Germans  occupied  and 
if  possible  their  line  of  migration,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  German 
tribes,  and  the  countries  in  which  they  settled,  (d)  Make  a  list  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  two  peoples  mingled. 

Note  1.  The  Decline  Of  the  Roman  Empire.  During  all  the 
time  that  the  Christian  church  was  growing  great  and  strong  the 
Roman  empire  was  becoming  weak.  There  were  reasons  for  this 
in  the  character  of  the  people,  and  in  the  way  in  which  they  lived 
and  carried  on  industry.  The  causes  were  numerous  and  complex. 
But  there  was  a  serious  danger  outside  of  the  inner  decline  of  pros- 
perity. There  were  people  outside  of  the  Roman  empire  who  were 
finding  out  how  many  good  things  there  were  on  the  Roman  side 
of  the  frontier,  and  who  stood  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the 
decline  when  it  had  gone  far  enough  so  that  the  empire  could  not 
defend  itself.  Wise  men  in  the  empire  saw  the  danger  and  deplored 
it.  Emperors  tried  various  devices  of  government  to  strengthen 
the  empire.  The  armies  drove  back  one  band  of  invaders  after 
another  when  they  tested  the  frontier  line  to  see  if  the  time  had 
come.     The  day  of  misfortune  was  delayed  but  the  decline  went  on. 

Note  2.  Could  Christianity  Save  It?  If  the  church  had  been 
truly  Christian  it  might  have  done  much  more  than  it  did  to  save 
the  empire.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  church  became  popu- 
lar when  Christianity  was  made  the  imperial  rehgion;  and  people 
flocked  into  the  church,  until  to  live  in  the  empire  meant  practically 
to  be  a  member  of  the  Christian  church.  There  was  no  requirement 
of  a  changed  purpose  in  life,  hardly  any  intention  to  do  any  differ- 


^*"  The  Barbarian  Deluge  49 

ently  except  to  observe  the  forms  of  worship  and  subscribe  to  the 
creed.  For  men  and  women  to  sign  themselves  Christians  and  go 
no  further  did  not  make  them  real  Christians,  or  make  it  possible 
to  save  the  empire  through  them.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what 
might  have  been  if  the  Christianity  of  that  day  had  stood  for  some- 
thing better. 

Note  3.  Who  were  the  Probable  Invaders?  The  people  who 
threatened  the  conquest  of  the  empire  in  the  West  were  German 
barbarians.  In  the  East  they  were  Slavic  peoples  and  border  tribes 
of  Asia.  The  eastern  part  of  the  empire  was  fortunate  in  surviving 
the  barbarian  attacks.  Territory  in  Asia  Minor  was  lost  to  Persian 
rivals,  and  more  land  still  to  Mohammedan  invaders,  Saracens  and 
Turks.  But  the  Greek  empire  long  remained,  and  its  capital,  Con- 
stantinople, did  not  fall  until  the  fifteenth  century.  The  great  and 
unsuccessful  struggle  was  in  the  West. 

The  German  or  Teutonic  race  had  long  lived  among  the  forests 
and  plains  of  northern  Europe  in  uncivilized  fasliion.  The  Roman 
legions  had  never  been  able  to  conquer  them,  but  for  four  centuries 
they  were  able  to  keep  them  beyond  a  frontier  line  made  by  the 
Rhine  and  Danube  rivers.  There  were  numerous  tribes,  but  in 
time  they  combined  into  seven  or  eight  great  confederations,  of 
which  the  most  powerful  were  the  Goths,  the  Vandals  and  the 
Franks,  and  these  began  to  move  slowly  in  great  migrations  with 
a  general  trend  toward  the  south.  They  had  heard  of  the  wealth 
and  splendor  of  the  Roman  empire  from  merchants,  soldiers  and 
members  of  their  own  race  who  had  seen  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  ancient  civilization.  They  were  eager  to  see  for  themselves  and 
to  have  some  of  the  good  things  to  enjoy. 

Note  4.  Breaking  over  the  Frontier.  As  they  moved  south, 
those  in  front  of  them  began  to  press  more  heavily  against  the  bar- 
riers. One  by  one  moved  the  great  migratory  bands  of  tens  of 
thousands  of  men  with  their  famihes  and  movable  property.  There 
was  no  special  order  of  march,  and  no  schedule  that  they  had  to 
keep.  They  camped  when  they  felt  like  it,  and  years  and  some- 
times generations  passed  before  they  got  near  enough  to  be  danger- 
ous, but  from  the  Roman  point  of  view  conditions  were  growing 
steadily  worse  rather  than  better.  In  the  year  375  the  Goths  asked 
the  Eastern  emperor  that  they  might  be  permitted  peacefully  to 
cross  the  river  Danube  and  settle  on  the  southern  side.  His  armies 
were  not  strong  enough  to  keep  them  out,  so  he  could  not  refuse; 


50  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


but  he  did  not  treat  them  well,  and  three  years  later  a  great  battle 
was  fought  in  which  the  Goths  were  victorious,  and  then  without 
resistance  they  moved  at  will  across  the  country,  visiting  and  sacking 
the  cities  and  countryside  of  Greece  and  Italy  and  southern  Gaul, 
until  after  some  years  they  settled  down  in  Spain. 

Note  5.  How  the  Invasion  Continued.  The  example  of  the 
Goths  was  contagious.  The  Vandals  went  as  far  as  North  Africa, 
and  took  those  provinces  for  themselves.  The  Burgundians  made 
their  way  into  the  province  of  Gaul  that  Julius  Caesar  had  con- 
quered five  hundred  years  before.  The  Romans  hired  bands  from 
one  tribe  to  fight  against  another  tribe,  but  in  either  case  they  were 
helpless  before  those  powerful  men  of  the  North,  who  had  not  yet 
been  spoiled  by  the  vices  of  civilization,  and  who  performed  mighty 
deeds  of  valor.  At  last  in  476  A.  D.  there  ceased  to  be  a  Roman 
emperor  in  the  West,  and  ten  years  later  the  Franks  took  away  the 
last  piece  of  Roman  territory  in  Gaul.  Within  ten  years  after  that 
another  branch  of  the  Goths  had  set  up  a  kingdom  of  their  own  in 
Italy,  and  Britain  was  being  submerged  by  waves  of  Anglo-Saxon 
invasion.  It  was  like  a  great  flood — this  German  migration.  It 
was  as  resistless  in  its  sweep  and  as  destructive  in  its  consequences. 
Before  the  barbarian  deluge  local  and  imperial  governments  tot- 
tered and  fell.  Cities  were  plundered  and  destroyed.  Libraries 
and  art  galleries  were  ransacked.  Lands  were  seized  and  held  in 
possession  by  the  strongest.  The  old  civilization  seemed  destined 
completely  to  pass  away. 

Note  6.  The  Fortunes  of  the  Christian  Church.  Amid  the  gen- 
eral destruction  one  institution  suffered  comparatively  little.  That 
was  the  Christian  church.  Some  church  buildings  were  sacked  and 
burned,  some  lands  were  taken  away,  but  most  of  the  tribes  had 
become  nominally  Christian  before  they  entered  the  empire,  and 
they  respected  the  priests  and  property  of  their  own  faith.  In 
countries  like  Britain  where  the  invaders  were  still  pagan,  the  loss 
of  the  church  was  greater.  It  was  fortunate  for  civilization  as  well 
as  for  the  church  itself  that  the  destruction  was  not  greater,  for  the 
Christian  church  of  the  empire  preserved  most  of  the  old  civilization 
and  by  and  by  taught  the  invaders  its  value  and  showed  them  how 
to  adopt  it  for  themselves.  Later  ages  owe  a  great  debt  of  gratitude 
to  the  teachers  of  the  Christian  Catholic  church,  for  without  their 
labors  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  ancient  civilization  could  have 
survived. 


Ttn 


The  Barbarian  Deluge  51 


Note  7.  The  Mingling  of  the  Peoples.  By  degrees  German  and 
Roman  provincials  learned  to  live  side  by  side  in  peace,  and  to 
respect  one  another.  Individuals  learned  even  to  like  each  other 
and  to  intermarry  in  ci\dlized  fashion.  They  had  business  dealings 
one  with  another.  They  went  to  the  same  churches,  together  re- 
ceived the  mass,  and  bowed  in  worship  before  the  same  God.  Their 
languages  began  to  influence  each  other  until  out  of  Latin  and 
German  came  the  Italian  and  French  and  Spanish,  sharing  in  the 
characteristics  of  both.  Social  customs  showed  the  effects  of  the 
habits  of  both  races;  political  order  had  the  Roman  form,  but  was 
animated  by  the  German  spirit.  In  this  way  took  place  what  is 
known  in  history  as  the  fusion  of  the  Roman  and  the  German,  until 
out  of  the  union  came  the  modern  peoples,  customs  and  governments 
that  characterize  southern  Europe  to-day. 

Note  8.  The  Effect  upon  Church  Authority.  The  barbarian  con- 
quests added  greatly  to  the  prestige  and  authority  of  the  officers  of 
the  church.  Civil  officers  and  the  people  everywhere  looked  to  the 
clergy  to  stand  between  them  and  the  invaders,  for  to  them  only 
would  they  show  respect.  Bishops  were  made  defenders  of  cities 
by  Roman  appointment  that  they  might  preserve  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  municipal  property  and  rights.  Lands  were  turned  over 
to  the  church  rather  than  have  them  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Ger- 
mans. Churches  and  monasteries  became  centers  of  refuge,  and 
not  a  few  men  and  women  took  monastic  orders  and  accepted  the 
authority  of  the  abbots  at  their  head  rather  than  submit  themselves 
to  the  danger  of  abuse  and  death.  When  the  clergy  saw  their  power 
with  the  superstitious  children  of  the  North,  they  assumed  authority 
which  they  really  did  not  possess,  and  by  their  energy  were  able 
to  impose  their  will  upon  the  weaker  minds.  The  authority  of  the 
pope  was  received  unquestioningly  by  the  ignorant  Germans,  and  his 
position  was  correspondingly  strengthened  throughout  the  church. 
Missionary  undertakings  that  will  be  described  later  carried  the 
influence  of  the  church  still  farther  afield.  So  that  the  Christian 
church  emerged  from  the  storm  of  destruction  with  little  loss  and 
in  many  respects  with  real  gain,  and  was  able  for  many  years  to 
continue  to  strengthen  itself  with  no  rival  to  dispute  its  claims. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lessons. 

1.  How  was  it  possible  for  Christianity  to  spread  as  it  did  in  the 
second  century? 

2.  What  were  its  strongest  rivals? 


52  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


3.  Name  the  periods  of  CJiristian  persecution,  and  name  the  first 
emperor  who  punished  Christians. 

4.  What  was  the  favorite  method  of  punishment? 

5.  Who  made  Christianity  a  legal  religion? 

6.  How  did  there  come  to  be  a  creed? 

7.  What  famous  council  decided  theological  differences? 

8.  What  was  the  early  organization  of  the  Christian  church? 

9.  Explain  how  the  church  grew. 

10.  Define  a  bishop  and  his  diocese. 

11.  Who  became  the  most  powerful  bishop? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Explain  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  danger  that 
threatened  it. 


2.  What  were  the  possible  means  of  warding  off  the  danger? 

3.  Why  could  not  Christianity  save  the  state? 

4.  Who  were  the  Germans,  and  what  did  they  want? 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Goths  breaking  over  the  frontier. 

6.  Name  other  tribes  and  their  places  of  settlement. 

7.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  deluge? 

8.  Why  did  the  church  suffer  little  as  compared  with  the  rest? 


^^^^«  The  Missionary  Monks  53 

9.  Show  how  the  peoples  mingled  to  form  one  race. 

10.  Show  how  the  church  gained  in  authority. 


Reading  References. 

(i)  Emerton:  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  chs.  1-7.     (2)  Kings- 
ley:  Roman  and  Teuton.     (3)  Myers:  The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  1. 


Lesson  11.    THE  MISSIONARY  MONKS.    How  the  Barbarians 
were  made  Christians. 

Sources. — Lives  of  the  saints;  chronicles  kept  in  the  medieval  monasteries; 
letters  of  Boniface  and  others;  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Britain. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  See  that  the  summary  is  written  properly  in  the 
note-book  and  studied. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  origin  of  Christian 
monasticisny  (6)  the  missionary  activity  of  the  monks;  (c)  the  stories  of  Patrick 
and  Boniface;  id)  the  contrast  between  the  cloister  monks  and  the  missionary 
monks. 

3.  Topic  for  special  thought  and  discussion:  What  is  there  about  the  monastic 
idea  that  deserves  to  be  perpetuated.'' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Unless  the  summary  has  been  written  in  the  note- 
book in  the  class,  the  first  task  is  to  copy  it.  (6)  Make  a  list  of  the  various 
occupations  of  the  western  monks  of  which  you  can  find  record,  and  underline 
what  you  consider  the  most  important,  (c)  Write  a  sketch  of  Boniface  in  not 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

Note  1.  Who  Were  the  Monks?  In  the  days  when  Christianity 
became  popular  and  people  rushed  into  the  church,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  spiritual  nature  no  longer  received  much  thought, 
some  persons  felt  that  they  could  no  longer  get  religious  satisfaction 
from  the  services  of  the  church.  They  felt  a  desire  to  get  away 
from  society  and  in  solitude  to  seek  communion  with  God  and  the 
salvation  of  their  souls.  They  believed  the  surest  way  to  strengthen 
the  soul  was  to  abuse  the  body,  so  they  practised  asceticism  or  self- 
denialo  These  were  the  Christian  hermits.  There  were  a  great 
many  of  them  in  the  desert  parts  of  the  East.  Some  of  them 
became  famous,  and  groups  formed  about  them.     Then  the  groups 


54  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


built  monasteries,  and  lived  beneath  the  same  roofs  under  the 
authority  of  an  abbot.  These  were  the  monks.  Such  a  monastery 
was  the  one  at  Bethlehem  ruled  by  Jerome  in  the  fourth  century. 
He  was  a  scholar  as  well  as  a  monk,  ranks  among  the  prominent 
Latin  fathers,  and  translated  the  Bible  from  the  original  languages 
into  the  Latin.     This  translation  is  known  as  the  Vulgate. 

Note  2.  How  the  Monks  Lived.  In  the  East  the  monks  devoted 
most  of  their  time  to  study,  meditation  and  prayer.  In  the  West 
they  were  organized  into  a  regular  order  by  Benedict  of  Nursia, 
a  monk  of  Italy,  who  bound  them  by  vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and 
obedience  to  the  head  of  the  order,  and  encouraged  them  to  work 
with  their  hands.  They  became  famous  as  farmers  and  artisans; 
they  produced  artistic  copies  of  old  manuscripts;  they  taught  schools; 
they  were  Christian  missionaries  to  the  barbarian  tribes  of  Europe. 
They  did  not  neglect  their  religious  duties,  but  the  hours  of  the  day 
were  so  divided  by  rule  that  they  had  time  for  all  their  tasks.  These 
western  monks  did  much  to  civilize  medieval  Europe,  and  their 
missionary  activities  are  of  special  interest. 

Note  3.  The  Monks  as  Missionaries.  It  was  through  the  con- 
secrated efforts  of  monks  that  the  German  tribes  which  entered  the 
empire  were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  at  a  later  time  through 
other  monks  the  gospel  of  Jesus  was  carried  into  the  wilds  of  the 
German  homeland,  where  lived  the  descendants  of  the  Germans 
who  had  been  contented  to  stay  behind  in  the  northern  forests. 
Some  illustrious  names  of  missionary  monks  have  come  down  to  our 
own  time.  Among  them  was  Ulfilas,  missionary  bishop  of  the  Greek 
church  to  the  Goths  before  they  wandered  over  the  Roman  provinces. 
He  did  his  best  to  impress  upon  them  the  peaceful  nature  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  it  is  said  that  when  he  translated  for  them  the  Old 
Testament  book  of  Kings  he  omitted  the  accounts  of  bloodthirsty 
wars,  fearing  that  they  might  be  stirred  to  imitate  them.  Severinus 
was  another  monk  who  lived  on  the  border  between  western  and 
eastern  Europe,  and  between  the  barbarians  and  the  provinces  in 
the  region  northeast  of  Italy.  He  tried  to  teach  industry  and  the 
arts  of  peace  as  well  as  the  more  spiritual  principles  of  Christianity. 
Saint  Gall  in  Switzerland  is  said  to  have  contended  with  the  demons 
of  Lake  Constance  as  well  as  with  the  benighted  minds  of  the 
heathen  people. 

Note  4.  Saint  Patrick.  One  of  the  famous  monastic  and  mis- 
sionary centers  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  British  Isles.     Patricia 


Eleven 


The  Missionary  Monks  55 


the  patron  saint  of  the  Irish,  is  one  of  the  noted  characters  of  history 
and  legend.  He  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Scotland,  but  to  have 
been  carried  away  into  slavery  in  Ireland  by  a  company  of  bucca- 
neers. Making  his  escape  to  his  friends,  he  was  troubled  to  think 
what  a  heathen  lot  the  untamed  Irish  were,  and  he  made  up  his 
mind  to  be  their  missionary.  Accordingly  he  gave  Iiis  life  to  the 
conversion  of  the  island.  Monasteries  sprang  up  and  became  the 
missionary  schools  of  that  day;  civilizing  as  well  as  Christianizing 
influences  were  set  at  work;  and  eventually  the  Irish  became  so 
thoroughly  converted  that  they  have  remained  one  of  the  most 
devoted  peoples  of  Catholic  Europe. 

Note  5.  Christianity  in  England.  Christianity  reached  England 
in  two  or  three  different  ways.  Britain  was  once  a  Roman  province, 
and  then  Christianity  was  introduced  there,  as  in  other  Roman 
provinces.  Christianity  in  its  Irish  monastic  form  was  established 
among  the  islands. and  along  the  coasts  of  western  Britain  by  those 
who  had  learned  it  from  the  Celts  of  Ireland.  But  Britain  was 
conquered  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  one  of  the  barbarian  tribes  from 
Germany  that  had  never  received  Christianity,  and  the  religion  of 
Jesus  was  destroyed  except  among  the  Irish  monasteries  of  the  West. 
Britain,  now  called  England,  or  Angle-land,  had  to  be  Christianized 
over  again,  and  this  was  accomplished  by  Celtic,  or  Irish,  mission- 
aries who  made  their  way  from  the  Scotch  border,  and  by  Roman 
missionaries  who  landed  from  the  Continent  and  made  their  way 
into  the  interior. 

Note  6.  Boniface,  Missionary  to  the  Germans.  English  Chris- 
tians in  their  turn  made  their  way  to  the  wilder  parts  of  the  Conti- 
nent. One  of  these  was  Boniface,  who  became  the  Apostle  of  the 
Germans,  and  deserves  a  large  place  in  the  annals  of  missionary 
heroism.  He  was  not  contented  to  teach  and  preach  where  others 
had  gone  before  him,  but  he  struck  out  for  himself  like  a  true  pioneer 
among  those  who  were  wholly  pagan.  After  a  few  years,  in  order 
to  be  better  fortified  for  his  work,  he  journeyed  to  Rome,  where  he 
received  the  blessing  of  the  pope  and  the  title  of  missionary  bishop. 
Returning  to  Germany  he  found  much  to  do  in  persuading  the 
people  to  accept  the  Christian  religion  and  in  teaching  them  how 
to  live  it.  It  was  hard  for  them  to  give  up  their  old  superstitions, 
and  the  missionary  was  driven  to  take  strong  measures. 

Note  7.  The  Fall  of  the  Oak  of  Thor.  Near  Geismar  in  the 
land  of  Hesse,  so  runs  the  story,  was  a  sacred  oak  of  great  age. 


56  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


dedicated  to  the  god  Thor,  who  hurls  the  thunder.  Under  its 
branches  the  whole  tribe  held  its  assemblies.  As  long  as  this  oak 
stood  Boniface  could  have  little  hope  that  he  would  be  able  to  make 
much  impression  upon  their  pagan  minds.  So  he  decided  that  the 
tree  must  come  down.  It  became  known  that  the  missionary  in- 
tended to  cut  down  the  tree,  and  great  was  the  excitement.  When 
the  day  came  and  Boniface  and  his  companions  came  to  the  tree, 
thousands  gathered  around  to  see  what  would  happen,  angry  and 
awe-struck,  believing  that  their  god  would  kill  the  daring  English- 
man for  his  sacrilege  as  soon  as  he  put  his  axe  to  the  tree.  But 
Boniface  went  vigorously  to  work  to  hack  it  down,  and  with  every 
stroke  the  faith  of  the  people  in  the  power  of  Thor  crumbled  until, 
when  the  giant  fell,  the  people  shouted,  "  The  Lord  he  is  God,  The 
Lord  he  is  God!  "  Out  of  the  wood  of  the  tree  Boniface  built  a 
shrine  for  Christian  worship,  and  from  that  time  he  was  a  great  man 
among  the  people.  During  the  next  few  years  Christianity  spread 
and  civilization  was  extended.  Clearings  were  made  in  the  forests, 
and  churches  and  monasteries  rose  among  the  trees.  The  people 
saw  that  Christianity  meant  a  better  living  and  a  nobler  life,  and 
were  content  to  follow  the  instructions  of  their  priests. 

Note  8.  Boniface's  Later  Life.  The  English  monk  knew  how  to 
win  victories  for  Christianity  among  the  forest  people,  and  he  also 
knew  how  to  make  the  Christian  organization  strong.  With  great 
foresight  he  founded  monasteries  at  points  in  the  wilderness  where 
they  would  naturally  become  centers  of  trade  and  would  grow  into 
towns  and  cities.  The  pope  made  him  archbishop,  and  he  organ- 
ized all  the  clergy  of  Germany  into  an  ecclesiastical  system  loyal  to 
the  pope  of  Rome.  He  was  invited  by  the  princes  of  the  Franks 
to  reorganize  the  Prankish  church  in  their  dominions,  and  he  man- 
aged this  difficult  task  with  remarkable  success.  By  this  time  he 
had  become  an  old  man,  but  he  was  not  content  to  take  a  well 
earned  furlough  during  the  rest  of  his  life,  but  started  off  to  convert 
another  savage  country  to  the  Christian  way.  Scarcely  had  he 
begun  this  work  when  he  was  set  upon  one  day  by  a  fanatical  band 
of  pagans,  and  fell  a  martyr  to  the  cause  he  lofed. 

Note  9.  Two  Kinds  of  Monks.  Monasticism  tended  to  make 
men  selfish  by  emphasizing  self-examination  and  the  cultivation  of 
their  own  souls'  welfare.  Too  many  of  those  who  shut  themselves 
within  monastery  walls  remained  there,  self-centered  monks  of  the 
cloister.  They  ignored  the  natural  ties  that  bound  them  to  home 
and  family;  they  cut  themselves  off  from  any  feeling  of  responsi- 


Eleven 


The  Missionary  Monks  57 


bility  towards  the  rest  of  society;  they  crushed  out  of  their  thoughts 
everything  except  that  which  could  contribute  to  their  eternal 
welfare. 

But  there  were  monks  of  another  kind,  who  engaged  in  active 
missionary  work.  They  too  sought  the  welfare  of  their  own  souls, 
but  they  felt  their  souls  nourished  by  deeds  of  kindness.  They 
could  not  crush  out  the  longing  to  lead  others  to  the  God  whom 
they  had  learned  to  know,  and  they  wished  to  build  up  the  strength 
of  the  church  by  adding  whole  tribes  to  the  number  of  adherents 
of  the  Christian  faith.  Such  were  Ulfilas  and  Severinus,  Patrick 
and  Boniface,  and  others  less  well  known.  They  deserve  honor  for 
living  up  to  the  light  they  had.  From  our  point  of  view  they  made 
many  mistakes,  and  they  had  much  to  learn  of  the  real  meaning  of 
Christianity;  but  they  had  the  right  spirit,  and  to  them  belongs  a 
prominent  place  in  the  missionary  history  of  the  Christian  church. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding"  Lesson. 

1.  Why  were  the  German  barbarians  able  to  overrun  the  Roman 
empire? 

2.  What  was  the  result  of  the  deluge? 

3.  How  did  Christianity  help  civilization? 

4.  What  did  Christianity  gain  for  itself? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Explain  asceticism,  hermits,  monks. 


2.  Who  was  Jerome? 


3.  Compare  the  eastern  and  western  monks. 


4.  Who  established  the  monastic  order  in  the  West?     with  what 
vows? 


5.  Name  several  monks  who  were  early  missionaries  among  the 
barbarians,  and  relate  any  incidents  about  them  that  you  recall. 


58  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

6.  Tell  tlie  story  of  Saint  Patrick. 

7.  What  were  the  effects  of  Saint  Patrick's  mission? 

8.  In  what  ways  did  Christianity  come  to  England? 


9.  Describe    the    various    activities    of   Boniface,    and    make   an 
estimate  of  his  importance. 


10.  What  is  meant  by  cloister  monks? 


Reading  References. 

{!)  Emerton:  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  11.  (2)  Myers: 
The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  3.  {3)  Maclear:  History  of  Christian  Missions 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  9, 


Lesson  12.    KNIGHTS  OF  THE  RED  CROSS.    Mohammedan- 
ism and  the  Crusaders. 

Sources. — Contemporary  chronicles  of  kings  and  monasteries ;  collections  of 
church  laws;  historical  accounts  by  De  Joinville,  a  French  noble,  William  of 
Tyre  and  others;  and  personal  memoirs. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1 .  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  previous  lesson  as 
written  in  the  note-book,  and  be  ready  to  answer  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the  new 
religious  impulse  of  Mohammedanism;  (6)  the  conquests  and  the  resulting 
civilization;  (c)  the  reasons  for  the  Christian  crusades;  {d)  the  first  and  the  third 
crusades;  (e)  the  present  standing  of  Mohammedanism  in  contrast  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

3.  Consider  for  discussion  the  following  topic:  Which  was  the  more  perma- 
nently effective  for  good — the  work  of  the  missionary  monks  in  the  wilderness  of 
Europe,  or  the  conquests  of  the  missionary  warriors  of  Mohammedanism  from 
Spain  to  India?     Give  reasons  for  an  opinion. 


^^''^'"'  Knights  of  the  Red  Cross  59 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  The  writing  of  the  usual  summary.  (6)  A  map  of  the 
Holy  Land  to  show  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  (Cf.  Robinson's  History 
of  Western  Europe,  or  Munro's  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.)  (c)  A  map  of  the 
present  Turkish  empire. 

Note  1  Mohammed  and  his  Crusade.  Between  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean  lies  an  ancient  land  of  hot  deserts 
and  smiling  valleys  that  has  sent  forth  many  times  hordes  of  hardy 
warriors  to  the  conquest  of  other  lands.  From  the  same  country 
have  come  some  of  the  great  religions  of  the  world.  In  this  great 
peninsular  land  of  Arabia  arose  a  new  rehgious  prophet  in  the  first 
part  of  the  seventh  century  whose  name  was  Mohammed.  He  be- 
longed to  the  city  of  Mecca,  but  his  enemies  drove  him  out  in  the 
year  622,  an  event  which  marks  the  beginning  of  the  Mohammedan 
calendar,  as  the  birth  of  Jesus  does  for  the  Christian  calendar. 
Within  ten  years  he  was  strong  enough  to  return  and  take  the  city, 
and  to  start  his  Mohammedan  followers  on  a  missionary  movement 
of  the  sword  that  was  not  to  stop  till  their  battalions  were  hurled 
back  from  the  land  of  the  Franks  a  hundred  years  later,  after  a 
successful  progress  the  length  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Note  2.  Missionaries  of  the  Sword.  It  was  while  missionary 
monks  were  Christianizing  the  barbarian  tribes  of  Europe,  that 
these  missionaries  of  another  sort  were  sweeping  across  whole  con- 
tinents and  compelling  the  conquered  people  to  choose  between  their 
sacred  book  of  the  Koran  or  the  sword.  There  was  little  that  was 
distinctive  about  this  new  religion  except  that  it  taught  that  there 
was  but  one  God  and  Mohammed  was  his  greatest  prophet.  But 
Mohammed  taught  that  it  was  God's  will  that  the  world  should  be 
won  for  this  newest  faith  even  at  the  point  of  the  sword,  and  that 
the  dearest  delights  of  heaven  were  for  those  who  died  on  the  field 
of  battle  in  fighting  for  their  faith.  This  teaching  was  able  to  unite 
the  tribes  of  Arabia,  and  to  fire  them  with  an  enthusiasm  that  was 
irresistible.  They  moved  first  upon  the  nearest  lands,  Syria  and 
Palestine.  They  went  north  and  conquered  west  central  Asia,  anci 
northwest  and  took  part  of  Asia  Minor  away  from  the  emperor  at 
Constantinople.  They  took  Egypt  and  pushed  beyond,  conquered 
all  North  Africa,  crossed  the  strait  of  Gibraltar  into  Spain  and  set 
up  an  Arabian  kingdom  there,  and  even  crossed  the  Pyrenees  Moun- 
tains, to  be  checked  only  by  a  confederation  of  German  tribes 
under  a  prince  of  the  Franks. 

Note  3.  Arabian  Civilization.  The  Mohammedans  were  not  con- 
tent with  conquering  all  these  peoples,  but  they  moulded  them  into 


60  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


the  fashion  of  their  own  particular  civilization,  as  the  Romans  had 
fashioned  the  provinces  of  their  empire  according  to  their  own  ideas. 
On  the  Tigris  River  in  the  East  among  the  ruins  of  the  old  Assyrian 
empire  they  built  the  city  of  Bagdad,  and  gave  to  it  in  the  days  of 
Haroun-al-Raschid  a  wealth  and  magnificence  such  as  had  not  been 
known  for  centuries,  and  such  as  the  half  civilized  people  of  Europe 
never  dreamed  of.  Not  only  in  the  East  but  at  the  other  end  of 
their  dominion  also,  in  Spain  that  they  had  conquered  from  the 
Visigoths,  agriculture  was  encouraged  by  the  scientific  process  of 
irrigation,  and  tropical  fruits  and  flowers  were  produced  in  great 
abundance.  Silk  culture  is  said  to  have  employed  130,000  men  in 
that  country.  Manufactures  of  pottery  and  metal  were  famous 
everywhere.  High  grade  Mohammedan  schools  and  universities 
attracted  Christian  students  from  all  over  Europe.  It  was  all  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  backwardness  of  the  rest  of  Europe. 

Note  4.  Turks  in  the  Holy  Land.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  Arabian  dominion  broke  apart  and  became 
weakened  and  the  prosperity  of  its  civilization  declined.  From  far 
away  on  the  Asiatic  steppes  another  Mohammedan  race  appeared 
to  dispute  with  the  Arabians  the  supremacy  of  the  East.  The  Turks 
had  arrived  on  the  stage  of  history.  In  the  eleventh  century  they 
conquered  Syria  and  the  holy  places  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Thousands  of  pilgrims  from  Europe  had  been  accustomed  to  resort 
every  year  to  Jerusalem  and  the  other  scenes  made  sacred  by  the 
presence  of  Jesus  Christ.  They  had  never  been  seriously  molested. 
But  the  Turks  knew  nothing  of  the  fine  courtesy  that  distinguished 
the  more  highly  civilized  Arabians.  They  began  to  treat  Christian 
pilgrims  harshly,  and  they  in  their  turn  returned  to  their  homes 
to  relate  a  tale  of  woe  in  the  sympathetic  ears  of  the  Christian  West. 

Note  5.  The  Beginning  of  the  Crusades.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  long  series  of  wars  known  in  the  history  of  Europe  as  the 
crusades.  Fired  with  a  religious  enthusiasm  that  resembled  that 
of  the  first  Mohammedans,  the  princes  determined  to  hurl  a  wave 
of  mailed  Christian  warriors  upon  the  East  and  its  upstart  con- 
querors and  to  recover  once  for  all  the  holy  places  of  their  own 
faith.  Meantime  the  Turks  were  pressing  on  and  threatening  the 
security  of  the  Greek  emperor  in  Constantinople.  In  1095  he 
appealed  to  the  pope  of  Rome.  Before  the  year  was  gone  the  pope 
called  a  council  and  eloquently  depicted  the  wrongs  that  were  suf- 
fered and  the  glory  that  would^come  from  a  successful  campaign, 
and  called  upon  western  Europe  to  rise  and  avenge  the  insult  to 


^'''^'"  Knights  of  the  Red  Cross  61 

the  cross.  Other  speakers  travelled  about  rousing  the  passions  of  the 
multitude.  A  mob  of  men,  women  and  children  led  by  Peter  the 
Hermit  started  in  disorderly  fashion  without  waiting  for  the  organ- 
ization of  an  army.  In  the  summer  and  fall  of  the  year  1096  Duke 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  other  princes  set  out  on  the  long  march 
with  organized  armies.  Every  soldier  wore  on  his  breast  a  red  cross 
as  the  symbol  of  the  faith,  and  vowed  to  fight  manfully  for  his 
prince  and  his  religion.  In  the  next  summer  these  armored  knights 
of  the  red  cross  reached  the  city  of  Nicea,  the  old  town  opposite 
Constantinople  where  the  council  was  held  in  325  to  settle  the 
theological  disputes  of  the  Greek  Christians.  After  the  conquest  of 
this  city  they  moved  on  to  Antioch  which  was  taken  after  a  siege, 
and  then  to  Jerusalem  in  the  summer  of  1099.  A  "  Latin  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  "  was  established  with  a  length  from  north  to  south 
of  five  hundred  miles,  but  not  more  than  seventy  miles  wide,  and 
bordered  on  the  east  by  a  line  of  fortresses  which  continued  to  be 
held  by  the  Mohammedans. 

Note  6.  The  Later  Crusades.  Thousands  of  crusaders  had  per- 
ished; thousands  more  returned  home.  Those  who  remained  for  the 
defense  of  the  new  kingdom  settled  down  to  live  among  a  Moslem 
people.  Each  race  was  compelled  to  treat  the  other  with  considera- 
tion. They  traded  together.  They  learned  to  respect  each  other 
and  even  intermarried.  The  men  of  the  West  were  astonished  at 
the  evidences  of  civilization  which  they  saw,  and  when  any  of  them 
returned  to  Europe  they  carried  the  news  of  the  excellences  of  the 
East.  Matters  went  on  in  this  way  for  fifty  years  till  the  original 
enemies  died,  but  hostilities  had  gone  on  intermittently.  In  1144 
the  Mohammedans  conquered  one  of  the  outlying  strongholds  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  and  tliis  stirred  up  a  second  crusade  in 
Europe,  led  by  the  kings  of  France  and  Germany,  but  this  enter- 
prise accomplished  nothing.  A  third  crusade  was  started  forty 
years  later.  The  old  enthusiasm  was  renewed.  Men  were  promised 
pardon  for  all  sorts  of  sins  by  the  church  if  they  would  go  out  to 
the  wars,  and  immense  armies  led  by  the  kings  of  France,  Germany 
and  England  made  their  way  once  more  to  the  Holy  Land,  and 
relieved  the  danger  and  distress  from  which  the  few  Christian 
soldiers  in  the  East  had  been  suffering.  But  contact  with  the 
civilization  of  the  East  again  had  its  softening  effects  upon  men's 
hearts  and  its  broadening  influence  upon  their  minds,  and  Europe 
gradually  learned  that  the  world  and  religion  were  both  larger  than 
they  had  thought. 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Other  attempts  were  made  from  time  to  time  to  win  a  more  de- 
cisive victory  for  Christianity  in  the  Orient,  but  the  old  fierce  enthu- 
siasm was  gone,  and  could  not  be  reawakened.  New  thoughts  were 
stirring  the  mind  and  new  interests  were  stimulating  the  life  of  the 
West,  and  even  the  complete  fall  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
in  1291  caused  hardly  a  ripple  throughout  Christendom.  Two  hun- 
dred years  had  brought  changes,  chief  of  which  was  the  stirring  of 
new  ideas  and  the  awakening  of  a  new  spirit  that  were  to  bring  to 
an  end  the  Middle  Ages. 

Note  7.  The  Cross  and  the  Crescent.  Mohammedan  and  Chris- 
tian had  fought  their  long  fight,  and  the  Christian  had  not  won. 
The  Turks  pushed  on  into  Europe,  and  the  Christian  emperor  at 
Constantinople  was  shorn  of  more  territory  nearer  home.  At  last 
after  eight  hundred  years  of  resistance  Constantinople  fell  before  a 
Mohammedan  attack  in  1453,  and  the  Greek  empire  of  the  East 
ceased  to  exist  almost  a  thousand  years  after  the  end  of  the  Roman 
empire  of  the  West.     In  its  place  arose  the  empire  of  the  Turk. 

The  Cross  and  the  Crescent  still  face  each  other  in  the  near  East. 
A  new  stimulus  had  come  to  the  Christian  West,  and  created  a  new 
civilization  and  recreated  the  faith  of  Jesus.  Decline  has  come  to 
the  Turkish  empire  as  to  its  predecessors.  But  Mohammedanism 
does  not  decline.  Its  ancient  center  is  in  Mecca.  It  reaches  out 
on  one  side  and  holds  the  allegiance  of  millions  of  the  people  of 
India;  it  advances  in  the  opposite  direction  farther  towards  the  heart 
of  Africa  each  year,  and  on  the  other  hand  Christian  missionaries 
make  little  impression  upon  the  older  Mohammedan  lands,  except 
as  they  deal  with  Christian  peoples  who  are  subject  to  them.  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammedan  armies  no  longer  contend  with  each  other 
on  the  field  of  battle,  but  a  spiritual  crusade  still  goes  on,  and  only 
the  future  can  tell  what  its  outcome  will  be. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  How  did  there  come  to  be  monks? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  cloister  monks? 

3.  In  what  way  were  other  monks  active? 

4.  Who  was  Boniface? 

5.  What  can  be  said  of  the  Benedictine  monks? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Where  did  Mohammedanism  originate?     In  what  kind  of  land? 


Thirteen 


The  Climax  of  Authority  63 


2.  What  event  and  date  mark  the  beginning  of  the  Mohammedan 
era? 


3.  What  were  Mohammed's  definite  achievements? 


4.  OutHne  the  conquests  of  Mohammedanism  in  its  first  century. 


5.  Describe  Arabian  civilization. 

6.  Who  were  the  Turks,  and  how  did  they  interfere  with  Chris- 
tians? 


7.  Describe  the  beginnings  of  the  crusade  movement. 

8.  What  did  the  crusaders  accomphsh? 


9.  Why  did  the  crusades  cease? 


10.  Compare  the  cross  and  the  crescent  at  the  present  time. 

Reading  References. 
{!)  Myers:  The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  13.     {2)  Munro:  History  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  ch.   11.     {3)  Robinson:  History  of  Western  Europe, 
ch.  15. 


Lesson  13.    THE  CLIMAX  OF  AUTHORITY.    What  the  Chris- 
tian Religion  had  Come  to  Mean  in  1200  A.  D. 
Review  of  Lessons  1-12. 

Sources. — Chronkles  of  monasteries,  decrees  of  popes,  letters  and  royal  rec- 
ords; Einhard's  Life  of  Charlemagne;  lives  of  Gregory  VII;  Roger  of  Wendover's 
Floioers  of  History  tells  how  Innocent  III  brought  King  John  of  England  into 
submission. 

Suggestions  for  Study.— 1.  Make  sure  that  all  the  summaries  are  up  to  date, 
and  studied  in  preparation  for  a  final  quiz. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  The  leading  points  in  advance  are:  (a)  the 
change  that  had  taken  place  in  the  meaning  of  Christianity;  (6)  the  growth  of 


64  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


papal  power  since  the  fall  of  the  empire;  (c)  the  rivalry  of  pope  and  German 
emperor;  (d)  the  submission  of  Henry  to  Gregory;  (e)  the  splendor  of  Innocent's 
reign. 

3.  For  discussion  consider  the  following  question:  What  is  the  most  important 
thing  about  Christianity? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  last  summary  is  written  out.  (6)  Make  a 
review  table  of  what  you  consider  the  leading  events  in  the  first  twelve  hundred 
years  of  Christian  history,  following  the  order  of  time  as  far  as  possible;  and  a 
list  of  the  principal  names  that  have  occurred  among  the  makers  of  Christian 
history. 

Note  1.  A  Bird's  Eye  Review.  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God 
whose  name  was  John.  In  the  wilderness  of  the  lower  Jordan  valley 
he  heralded  the  coming  of  a  greater  teacher.  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
the  Christ  who  was  to  come  after  him,  traveled  over  Palestine, 
teaching  a  new  gospel  and  saving  both  the  bodies  and  souls  of  men. 
Because  the  Jews  could  not  understand  this  type  of  goodness,  they 
crucified  Him.  But  through  His  disciples  the  pagan  as  well  as  the 
Jewish  world  was  evangelized,  and  the  lives  of  thousands  of  men 
and  women  were  transformed  by  the  power  of  God's  spirit.  The 
new  faith  of  Christianity  met  with  opposition  from  the  Roman  state, 
and  torture  and  death  were  measured  out  to  many  Christian  martyrs. 
It  met  the  demand  of  an  intellectual  Greek  people  for  a  definition 
of  its  belief,  and  Christian  thinkers  threshed  out  a  system  of  doc- 
trine. It  was  necessary  that  the  Christian  spirit  should  be  em- 
bodied in  a  church  also,  and  by  a  gradual  process  a  strong  system 
of  organization  was  developed.  Then,  when  Christianity  had  made 
itself  strong  and  had  won  recognition  in  the  empire  of  Rome,  that 
empire  fell  to  pieces  under  the  attacks  of  a  new  race  of  barbarians 
from  the  North.  Many  of  these  barbarians  had  already  taken  upon 
themselves  the  name  of  Christians,  and  the  Christian  church  sur- 
vived the  general  destruction.  But  the  conquerors  were  uncivilized 
and  ignorant,  and  the  church  had  to  undertake  the  task  of  making 
them  truly  Christian  and  civilized.  It  took  nearly  a  thousand  years 
to  do  it,  but  not  only  were  the  Germans  who  had  come  into  the 
Roman  provinces  made  over,  but  through  the  heroism  of  Christian 
missionaries  northern  Europe  was  Christianized  and  civilized  as 
well,  and  Christianity  was  even  strong  enough  to  attempt  the  recon- 
quest  of  Palestine  from  the  Mohammedans  who  had  conquered  it. 

Note  2.  What  the  Christian  Religion  had  Come  to  Mean.  It  was 
certain  that  in  this  long  period  of  nearly  twelve  hundred  years  from 
the  time  of  Jesus,  opinions  about  the  Christian  religion  would 
change  greatly.  As  Jesus  taught  it,  Christianity  was  a  gospel  of 
hope  and  good  cheer,  a  message  of  the  love  of  God  and  an  inspira- 


Thirteen 


The  Climax  of  Authority  65 


tion  to  nobler  living.  The  Jews  attempted  to  impose  upon  Chris- 
tians the  necessity  of  observing  the  Mosaic  law,  but  this  was  pre- 
vented. The  Greeks  read  into  it  their  own  philosophical  interpre- 
tations of  religious  truth,  and  transformed  the  simple  gospel  into  a 
system  of  theology.  The  Romans  took  the  growing  church  organ- 
ization which  necessity  had  fashioned  in  the  East,  and  put  the 
stamp  of  its  political  system  on  it.  In  the  West  it  came  to  be  the 
custom  to  think  of  Christianity  as  consisting  of  membership  in  the 
one  Catholic  church,  and  salvation  as  secured,  not  through  faith 
in  Christ  and  a  life  lived  like  Him,  but  through  partaking  of  the 
sacrament  of  the  mass  given  by  the  hands  of  a  properly  consecrated 
priest.  The  highest  priest  and  bishop  of  the  church  was  the  pope 
of  Rome. 

Note  3.  The  Growth  of  Papal  Power.  The  incoming  of  the 
northern  tribes  and  the  fall  of  the  empire  of  the  West  threw  added 
responsibilities  on  the  pope.  He  was  defender  as  well  as  spiritual 
shepherd  of  liis  flock.  And  when  it  became  necessary  to  instruct 
these  children  of  the  forest  in  the  rudiments  of  the  Clu-istian  faith 
and  in  the  elements  of  civilization,  the  church  had  to  furnish  the 
means  and  the  teachers.  Both  pope  and  church  were  greatly 
strengthened  by  the  missionary  labors  of  the  monks  and  by  the 
crusades.  Monasticism  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  obedience 
to  authority,  and  when  the  monks  went  everywhere  over  northern 
and  western  Europe  preaching  Catholic  Christianity,  they  im- 
pressed upon  their  converts  that,  as  children  of  the  church,  they 
owed  unquestioning  obedience  to  the  commanos  of  the  pope.  The 
new  dioceses  were  organized  with  the  recognition  of  the  pope  as 
their  chief.  Archbishops  were  not  properly  qualified  for  their  office 
until  they  had  received  their  symbol  of  authority  from  the  pope. 
It  was  the  pope  who  stimulated  the  men  of  France  and  Flanders  to 
go  on  the  first  crusade  against  the  Mohammedans.  The  religious 
enthusiasm  that  was  aroused  made  the  people  of  western  Europe 
more  loyal  to  the  church,  and  the  pope  as  its  head  received  greater 
honor.  So  it  came  about  that  Christianity  really  had  come  to  mean 
but  little  more  than  the  acknowledgment  of  allegiance  to  a  certain 
church  organization  and  to  its  absolute  ruler  the  pope. 

Note  4.  The  Papacy  vs.  the  New  Empire.  The  popes  of  Rome 
were  not  content  with  their  power  and  glory  as  heads  of  a  great 
church.  In  the  days  of  anarchy  they  had  become  practically  civil 
rulers  of  their  own  neighborhood,  and  later  on  additional  lands  were 
turned  over  to  them  as  gifts  of  friendship  from  princes  of  the  Franks, 


66  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


and  after  a  time  they  persuaded  themselves  that  they  had  rights 
as  civil  rulers  as  well  as  church  officers.  It  was  only  a  step  further 
to  claim  political  as  well  as  spiritual  supremacy  over  kings  and 
emperors,  but  then  they  met  a  powerful  rival. 

A  king  of  the  Franks  named  Charlemagne  had  revived  the  old 
empire  in  the  year  800,  and  had  been  crowned  as  emperor  by  the 
pope  at  Rome.  He  included  in  his  realm  only  what  are  now  France, 
Belgium  and  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Italy, 
and  he  was  emperor  for  only  a  few  years.  But  the  empire  was 
revived  again  by  a  German  prince  Otto,  and  this  time  it  was  called 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  on  the  theory  that  God  had  given  to  the 
emperor  his  right  to  rule  over  the  bodies  of  men  as  he  had  given  to 
the  pope  the  right  to  control  their  souls.  The  German  emperors 
never  were  able  to  do  much  more  than  reign  over  Germany,  but 
they  always  claimed  Italy  also,  and  sometimes  made  and  unmade 
popes.  On  the  other  hand  the  popes  claimed  to  have  the  right 
to  crown  and  depose  the  emperors.  So  these  two  became  keen 
rivals  for  the  supremacy  of  Europe. 

Note  5.  Pope  Gregory  VII  vs.  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  In  1073 
a  man  named  Hildebrand  became  pope  and,  changing  his  name  as 
popes  are  accustomed  to  do,  took  the  title  of  Gregory  VII.  He  was 
one  of  the  ablest  men  who  ever  sat  on  the  papal  throne;  he  made 
the  papacy  feared  and  respected  as  it  never  had  been  before.  His 
particular  rival  was  the  German  emperor  Henry  IV.  Henry  was 
ambitious  to  be  a  rgal  emperor,  but  the  princes  in  his  realm  were 
disorderly,  and  the  pope  was  disposed  to  thwart  his  plans.  The 
result  was  that  the  emperor  fell  into  a  quarrel  with  Pope  Gregory. 
The  emperor  issued  a  decree  that  the  pope  was  deposed;  the  pope 
responded  by  declaring  the  emperor  expelled  from  the  church  and 
relieved  from  the  allegiance  of  his  nobles  and  princes.  Unfortu- 
nately for  Henry  his  nobles  improved  the  opportunity  to  assert 
their  rights  in  Germany,  and  the  emperor  found  himself  helpless. 
There  was  nothing  for  him  to  do  but  to  submit  to  the  pope. 

Note  6.  The  Scene  at  Canossa.  It  was  winter,  and  the  pope 
was  stopping  for  a  few  days  at  a  castle  high  up  in  the  Apennine 
Mountains.  After  a  difficult  journey  Henry  arrived  before  the 
castle,  and  humbly  asked  that  he  might  be  admitted  to  make  his 
submission  to  the  pope.  But  he  was  refused.  Day  after  day  for 
three  days  the  penitent  emperor,  barefooted  and  clad  in  the  thin 
cloak  of  a  pilgrim,  stood  outside  the  castle  in  the  snow,  begging 
forgiveness  from  the  proud  potentate  who  claimed  to  be  the  repre- 


Thirteen 


The  Climax  of  Authority  67 


sentative  on  earth  of  the  meek  and  kindly  Jesus,  while  that  pontiff 
satisfied  his  desire  for  revenge  and  kept  his  rival  waiting.  When 
Henry  was  at  last  admitted,  he  threw  himself  unreservedly  on  the 
mercy  of  the  pope,  and  Gregory  received  him  again  into  the  bosom 
of  the  church.  But  Henry  went  home  studying  how  he  might  get 
even  with  the  pope,  and  years  later  he  drove  Gregory  from  Rome 
and  the  pope  died  in  exile. 

Note  7.  Innocent  HI,  the  Lord  of  Europe.  The  contest  went  on 
for  most  of  the  next  two  centuries.  Neither  side  was  able  to  gain 
a  permanent  advantage  over  the  other.  But  about  the  year  1200 
the  greatest  of  all  the  popes  became  lord  of  Rome.  This  was  Inno- 
cent III.  Before  him  neither  the  emperor  nor  any  king  could  claim 
the  right  of  supremacy.  He  compelled  the  king  of  the  French  to 
submit  to  his  will.  He  reduced  England  to  a  principaHty  dependent 
on  the  papacy.  He  nominated  the  man  who  was  to  be  emperor 
of  Germany.  He  intervened  in  the  affairs  of  Spain,  and  had  himself 
obeyed  even  in  distant  Norway.  He  recognized  the  establishment 
of  a  new  religious  order  among  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  as  resolutely 
denied  the  privilege  to  another.  He  ruled  Rome  in  gorgeous  state, 
and  allowed  no  one  to  dispute  liis  authority.  Since  the  days  of  the 
Roman  emperors  and  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  the  world  had  not  seen 
such  grandeur  and  such  glory. 

Note  8.  The  Climax  and  the  Contrast.  So  the  church  of  Rome 
had  reached  the  climax  of  its  authority.  Before  the  twelfth  century 
was  over  the  papal  fortunes  had  begun  a  rapid  decline,  which  was 
not-  to  stop  until  all  northern  Europe  in  the  Reformation  threw  off 
its  allegiance  to  Rome.  But  for  the  time  the  pope  was  without  a 
rival.  In  his  palace  in  the  old  imperial  city  he  could  look  out  over 
the  seven  hills  of  Rome,  and  rejoice  Hke  Caesar  in  the  glory  that 
was  his;  but  it  seems  as  if  sometimes  he  must  have  thought  of  that 
other  hill  outside  a  city  wall  where  the  Savior  of  men  gave  up  the 
kingdoms  of  earth  to  establish  in  human  hearts  the  kingdom  of 
heaven. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  the  Preceding  Lessons. 

1.  What  made  it  impossible  for  the  Roman  empire  to  survive.? 

2.  When  did  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians  occur? 

3.  What  was  Christianity  able  to  do? 

4.  Explain  the  existence  of  Christian  monks,  and  their  activities. 

5.  How  did  Mohammedanism  originate? 

6.  Where  were  the  Mohammedan  conquests  made? 

7.  What  were  the  crusades? 


68  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
.1.  Outline  briefly  the  leading  events  in  the  first  five  hundred  years 
of  Christian  history. 

2.  What  was  the  task  of  the  church  with  relation  to  the  barba- 
rians, and  how  did  it  perform  the  task? 


3.  Show  how  Christianity  had  changed  in  its  meaning  through 
the  influence  of  Jews,  Greeks  and  Romans. 


4.  How  was  the  papacy  able  to  add  to  its  power  in  the  Middle 

Ages? 

5.  What  were  the  two  rivals  for  supremacy  in  European  politics? 

6.  Sketch  the  rise  of  the  medieval  empire. 


7.  Tell  the  story  of  the  quarrel  between  Henry  IV  and  Gregory 
VII. 


8.  What  facts  show  the  power  of  Innocent  III? 

9  About  what  time  did  the  papacy  reach  the  climax  of  its  power? 

10.  Contrast  Innocent  III  in  Rome  and  Jesus  at  the  crucifixion. 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Myers:  The  Middle  Ages,  pp.  202-212,  257-260.  (2)  Robinson: 
History  of  Western  Euro'pe,  chs.  13,  14.  {3)  Adsuns:  Civilization  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  10. 


PART  n 

The  Modern  Awakening 


Lesson  14.    THE  NEW  IDEAS  OF  A  BAREFOOT  PREACHER. 

The  Church  Designed  for  Service,  not  Sovereignty. 

Sources.  — Lives  of  St.  Francis,  by  Bonaventura,  and  Thomas  of  Celano; 
The  Rule  of  St.  Francis;  The  Mirror  of  Perfectiony  written  by  Brother  Leo  very 
'  soon  after  Francis'  death;  and  the  Little  Flowers  of  St.  Francis,  a  collection  of 
anecdotes  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson, 

and  be  ready  for  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted:  (a)  the  im- 
pression made  on  Francis  by  the  words  of  Jesus;  (6)  the  contrast  between  the 
ideas  of  Francis,  the  monks  and  the  popes;  (c)  the  program  of  the  friars;  (d)  the 
failure  of  the  ideals. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion :  What  is  the  highest 
ideal  that  a  person  can  set  for  himself  in  Ufe?     Give  reasons. 

4.  Prepare  the  work  of  the  note-book  as  follows:  (a)  See  that  all  the  note- 
book work  assigned  the  previous  quarter  is  complete,  including  the  summaries. 
(b)  Look  up  in  an  encyclopedia  the  different  kinds  of  friars  and  write  a  brief 
description  of  the  Dominicans,  (c)  Write  a  brief  comparison  of  the  Franciscans 
and  the  modern  Salvation  Army. 

Note  1.  A  Village  of  Umbria.  In  the  days  when  Pope  Innocent  III 
was  the  proudest  potentate  of  medieval  Europe,  there  grew  to  manhood 
a  boy  who  was  to  impress  the  people  of  Europe  with  a  new  idea  of 
Christianity  and  the  church.  He  is  known  in  history  as  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  from  the  name  of  the  village  of  Italy  in  which  he  was  born. 
As  Nazareth  was  a  hundred  miles  or  so  from  Jerusalem  and  the  hills 
above  it  looked  down  upon  the  valley  of  Esdraelon,  so  Assisi  was 
nearly  as  far  north  of  Rome  and  from  its  situati^  high  upon  the  hill- 
side its  inhabitants  could  look  down  over  the  vale  of  Umbria.  Its 
terraces  bore  ancient  houses  of  reddish  stone,  huddled  together  and 
clinging  to  the  steep  hillsides.  Its  people  were  a  sturdy,  independent 
sort,  trusting  in  the  wall  that  girt  the  town  and  in  the  strength  of  their 
arms  to  defend  them  from  their  enemies.  In  those  days  the  villages  of 
Italy  were  slow  to  acknowledge  any  man  as  master,  and  Assisi,  perched 
on  the  hillside  and  overlooking  the  plain  below,  was  as  proud  of  itself 
as  was  the  pope  lording  it  over  the  seven  hills  of  Rome, 

Note  2.  How  Francis  Came  to  be  a  Friar.  It  was  in  the  year  1182 
that  Francis  was  born  in  the  Umbrian  village.  He  was  not  a  poor 
boy,  for  his  father  was  known  as  a  wealthy  cloth  merchant,  who  made 


70  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

long  journeys  over  Europe  to  purchase  goods  at  the  great  fairs,  where 
people  gathered  from  all  directions,  and  exchanged  at  the  same  time 
their  gossip  and  their  goods.  His  merchant  father  was  fond  of  Francis, 
and  would  have  given  him  as  fair  an  education  as  boys  of  his  sort  then 
received,  and  a  good  place  in  his  business  afterward.  Francis  might 
have  seen  much  of  the  world  and  might  have  become  prosperous;  but 
he  was  foolish  enough  to  want  a  good  time  in  his  own  way,  and  before 
he  was  a  man  grown  he  had  tried  all  kinds  of  dissolute  ways  and  had 
been  the  leader  of  a  wild,  fast  set.  In  those  turbulent  times  he  fought 
for  his  town  in  a  local  quarrel,  and  suffered  imprisonment  for  a  year. 
After  that  he  was  seriously  ill,  and  this  sobered  him.  He  was  naturally 
generous  and  impulsive,  and  the  sight  of  poverty  and  sickness  made 
such  a  wrench  upon  his  sympathies  that  at  times  he  beggared  himself 
through  his  generous  alms.  His  father  had  no  more  liking  for  this 
than  for  his  son's  earlier  bad  habits,  and  they  quarrelled.  Francis  took 
off  even  the  good  clothes  that  he  wore,  and  in  a  gardener's  cast-off 
suit  he  went  off  as  a  hermit,  and  spent  his  time  begging  money  to  repair 
neighboring  churches  and  shrines.  One  day  he  heard  a  priest  read  the 
word  of  Jesus:  "  As  ye  go,  preach,  saying,  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at 
hand.  Heal  the  sick,  raise  the  dead,  cleanse  the  lepers,  cast  out 
demons;  freely  ye  received,  freely  give.  Get  you  no  gold,  nor  silver, 
nor  brass  in  your  purses ;  no  wallet  for  your  journey,  neither  two  coats, 
nor  shoes,  nor  staff;  for  the  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  food  "  (Matt.  10; 
7-10).  Francis  interpreted  this  as  a  literal  message  for  himself,  and  in 
the  spirit  of  Jesus  he  went  out  to  preach  and  to  receive  his  living  from 
the  people  among  whom  he  went.  He  and  his  followers  became  known 
simply  as  friars,  that  is,  brothers,  and  mendicants  from  their  habit  of 
begging  their  living. 

Note  3.  The  Ideas  of  Francis  about  Religion.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  idea  of  the  Catholic  church  about  religion  was  tliat  it 
consisted  of  membership  in  the  church  and  participation  in  the  sacra- 
ments, that  the  monks  had  not  been  satisfied  with  this,  but  had  with- 
drawn from  society  to  work  out  their  own  measure  of  bliss  within 
monastery  walls,  but  that  no  one  had  thought  of  service  as  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  Christianity.  The  pope  of  Rome  claimed  to  be 
the  vicegerent  of  Christ  and  the  successor  of  the  Apostles,  but  he  had 
inverted  the  order  of  Christ's  thought,  and  had  placed  sovereignty 
before  service.  Francis  caught  again  the  spirit  of  the  teaching  of 
Jesus,  and  believed  that  to  be  truly  religious  he  must  take  for  himself 
in  thirteenth  century  Europe  the  rule  that  Jesus  had  given  His  dis- 
ciples in  Palestine  in  the  first  century.     To  serve  others  was  his  motto, 


Pourteen  r^j^^  j^^^  jj^^^  ^f  ^  Barefoot  Preacker  71 

and  this  idea  he  preached  pubhcly  out-of-doors,  as  Jesus  had  done. 
He  gathered  about  himself  others  who  became  his  disciples,  in  similar 
fashion  as  did  Jesus.  They  set  for  their  idea  the  preaching  of  this 
simple  gospel,  and  gave  themselves  to  minister  to  the  sick,  the  lepers, 
and  the  helpless  ones.  They  travelled  about  Italy,  and  by  and  by 
crossed  the  Alps  and  penetrated  all  parts  of  Roman  Catholic  Europe. 

Note  4.  The  Rule  of  Francis.  All  this  time  Francis  remained  a 
good  Catholic.  He  had  no  quarrel  with  the  church  or  its  principles, 
but  he  did  not  think  the  monks  had  the  idea  of  a  truly  religious  life, 
and  he  beheved  his  own  idea  of  service  to  be  the  correct  one.  He 
desired  to  organize  his  followers  into  a  new  monastic  order  that  he 
might  hold  them  to  his  own  ideas,  and  to  receive  the  sanction  of  the 
pope  that  the  order  might  have  recognition  as  an  orthodox  religious 
institution.  First  he  drew  up  the  rules  of  the  proposed  order.  They 
were  simple  in  form,  and  were  based  on  his  fundamental  principle  of 
service.  His  followers  were  to  imitate  the  Master  and  His  disciples, 
to  practise  asceticism  and  humility,  and  to  serve  the  Lord  and  the 
church.  In  order  to  avoid  the  perils  of  property  into  which  the  monas- 
teries had  fallen,  he  insisted  that  the  order  as  well  as  the  individual 
members  should  not  receive  endowments. 

Note  6.  The  Recognition  of  the  Order  by  the  Pope.  With  his 
rule  Francis  and  several  of  his  companions  went  to  Rome  to  interview 
the  pope.  It  was  in  the  year  1210.  Innocent  was  in  his  grand  palace 
of  the  Lateran,  and  thither  the  mendicant  friars  made  their  way.  Dark 
visions  may  have  been  clouding  the  mind  of  the  pope  in  the  midst  of 
his  proud  prosperity.  However  that  may  have  been,  he  was  not 
pleased  with  the  appearance  of  the  barefoot  friars  in  their  coarse  gowns 
of  undyed  wool,  and  he  would  not  listen  to  their  request.  They  with- 
drew in  sorrow  but  not  in  despair.  Innocent  went  to  his  bed,  but  in 
the  night  he  had  strange  dreams  that  seemed  to  associate  themselves 
with  his  unwelcome  visitors.  A  palm  tree  seemed  to  spring  from  the 
soil  between  his  feet,  and  growing  rapidly  to  spread  itself  on  every 
side  for  the  comfort  of  all  who  came  beneath  its  branches.  If  he  was 
right  to  interpret  the  proposed  order  as  this  palm  tree,  it  would  be  well 
for  the  church  to  give  it  recognition,  even  though  to  approve  this 
crazy  fanaticism  of  Francis  seemed  to  cast  discredit  on  the  selfish  lives 
of  the  monks.  In  the  morning  Francis  and  his  companions  were 
recalled  and  the  pope  gave  his  verbal  sanction  to  the  plan. 

Note  6.  Success  of  the  New  Plan.  With  the  papal  benediction 
the  Franciscans  went  out  to  bless  their  fellow-men.     They  sought  only 


7^  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


the  hard  places.  They  went  into  the  most  squaHd  sections  of  the  grow- 
ing towns,  and  sat  by  the  lepers  on  the  refuse  heaps  outside  the  walls. 
They  found  abiding  places  in  the  meanest  quarters,  and  worked  with 
their  hands  when  they  had  opportunity,  not  that  they  might  support 
themselves,  for  that  was  not  a  part  of  their  plan;  but  that  they  might 
not  be  idle  and  that  they  might  set  a  good  example  to  the  people.  The 
Cathohc  church  has  always  exalted  the  clergy,  and  discouraged  the 
Christian  activity  of  laymen,  and  it  was  the  wish  of  the  pope  that  the 
lay  friars  become  ordained.  Then  the  people  went  to  them  as  their 
confessors  rather  than  to  their  priests,  and  soon  the  followers  of  Francis 
became  famous  in  the  Catholic  church.  They  became  teachers  in  the 
schools  and  universities;  they  were  adopted  into  royal  courts  as  preach- 
ers and  confessors;  and  they  became  honored  and  often  rich,  in  spite 
of  the  purpose  of  their  founder  that  they  should 'be  poor  and  humble. 
An  order  of  nuns  corresponding  to  the  Fraliciscans  was  organized  on 
the  same  basis  by  Clara  of  Assisi,  a  friend  of  Francis;  and  Francis 
aided  greatly  in  a  real  religious  revival  by  organizing  a  third  body  of 
lay  people  known  as  Tertiaries,  who  continued  in  their  ordinary  voca- 
tions, but  carried  out  as  far  as  possible  the  unselfish  principles  of  the 
regular  Franciscans. 

Note  7.  The  Failure  of  the  Ideal.  Much  as  Francis  lamented  it, 
and  tried  to  prevent  it  by  a  modified  rule,  it  proved  impossible  to  main- 
tain the  high  standards  that  he  had  set  for  the  order.  Beautiful 
churches  and  well-endowed  monasteries  were  too  delightful  to  be  re- 
fused. Only  a  minority  of  the  friars  had  the  devotion  to  keep  the 
rules  that  Francis  had  set,  after  he  himself  had  gone.  Another  order 
of  friars  had  been  founded  by  Dominic,  a  Spaniard,  especially  devoted 
to  the  suppression  of  heresy,  but  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  both 
eventually  became  proud,  corrupt  and  wealthy.  They  produced  some 
renowned  men,  like  Thomas  Aquinas  the  greatest  scholar  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  Roger  Bacon  the  most  illustrious  scientist  of  the  time,  Fra  Angel- 
ico  the  artist,  Savonarola  the  prophet  of  Florence,  and  even  Martin 
Luther  the  great  reformer  of  Germany,  but  in  the  main  they  were  not 
men  of  high  character.  Some  of  them  made  their  way  as  missionaries 
into  America  and  the  East,  but  the  people  in  Europe  and  abroad  came 
to  hate  them  as  much  for  their  selfish,  grasping  ways,  as  in  the  days  of 
their  pure  devotion  they  had  loved  them  for  their  self-sacrifice.  As  for 
Francis,  while  his  manner  of  living  would  not  suit  our  ideas  of  cleanli- 
ness or  godliness,  it  must  be  said  that  he  honored  the  ideals  of  his 
Master  more  than  any  who  had  lived  since  Apostolic  days,  and  in  his 
methods  he  has  been  imitated  successfully  by  the  Salvation  Army  of 
our  own  time. 


Fourteen 


The  New  Ideas  of  a  Barefoot  Preacher  73 


Questions  on  the  Lessons  of  the  Preceding  Quarter. 

1.  What  was* the  subject  of  the  course  for  the  first  quarter? 

2.  What  were  the  leading  topics? 

3.  What  were  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  medieval  Catholic 
church? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  the  birthplace  of  St,  Francis. 


2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  youth  of  Francis. 

3.  Describe  his  conversion  to  a  new  life. 

4.  How  did  the  ideas  of  Francis  differ  from  those  of  the  pope? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis? 

6.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  pope  towards  the  Franciscans? 

7.  Explain  how  the  influence  of  the  new  order  became  widespread, 

8.  What  is  meant  by  Tertiaries? 

9.  Show  how  the  friars  failed  to  hold  to  the  ideals  of  Francis. 

10.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  famous  friars? 


74  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"'^ 

Reading  References. 
{!)  Brother  Leo:  The  Mirror  of  Perfection.     {2)  Robinson:  History 
of  Western  Europe,  pp.  225-232.     {3)  Walker:  Great  Men  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  pp.  164-173. 


Lesson  15.    THE  STRANGE  THEORIES   OF  THE  SOUTHERN 
HERETICS.    The  Albigensians  and  the  Waldensians. 

Sources. — Bernard  of  Gui's  Inquisitor  s  Guide;  the  French  laws  of  Louis  IX; 
papal  edicts;  various  letters,  discourses  and  decrees. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson,  and 
be  prepared  to  answer  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  tendency  towards  reli- 
gious independence;  (6)  the  differences  between  Albigensians  and  Waldensians; 
(c)  the  principles  of  the  Waldensians;  {d)  the  methods  of  the  Inquisition;  {e)  the 
relatives  of  the  Waldensians. 

3.  Note  the  follo\\'ing  topic  for  special  discussion:  Were  the  medieval  "Breth- 
ren" right  in  thinking  that  they  could  correctly  interpret  the  Bible.'* 

4.  Observe  the  following  note-book  work:  (a)  Write  out  in  full  the  last  sum- 
mary. (6)  Draw  a  map  of  Europe,  and  place  on  it  the  principal  localities  where 
heresy  flourished.  It  should  include  at  least  Albi  and  Lyons  in  southern  France, 
Lombardy,  Piedmont,  and  the  cities  of  Wy cliff e  and  Huss.  (c)  Make  a  list  of 
the  ways  in  which  the  heretics  differed  from  the  orthodox  Catholics,  {d)  Write 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 

Note  1.  The  Catholic  Church  and  Heresy.  Not  long  before 
Francis  applied  to  the  pope  for  a  recognition  of  his  new  order  of  friars, 
Peter  Waldo  of  Lyons  in  southern  France  had  asked  that  he  and  his 
followers  might  receive  the  papal  sanction,  but  it  had  been  refused. 
They  practised  a  simple  gospel  like  the  Franciscans,  but  'they  main- 
tained the  right  of  the  individual  to  follow  the  instructions  of  the  Bible 
even  if  it  conflicted  with  the  teachings  of  the  priests.  But  this  was 
heresy,  and  heresy  in  the  eyes  of  the  church  of  Rome  was  a  most 
serious  offense. 

It  is  w^ell  to  remember  that  the  Catholic  church  of  the  Middle  Ages 
stood  firmly  for  one  church  and  one  faith.  To  separate  from  the  one 
true  church  was  schism,  and  the  Greek  Christians  had  been  guilty  of 
that  in  1054.  To  question  the  faith  or  practices  of  the  church  and  its 
clergy  was  heresy,  and  from  time  to  time  heretical  individuals  and 
even  small  sects  appeared,  but  the  church  was  able  to  suppress  them. 
Rome  was  usually  wise  enough  to  adapt  to  her  own  use  whatever 
various  movements  arose  within  the  church,  like  monasticism.  It  was 
far  better  to  do  this  than  to  make  enemies  of  them.  But  there  were 
limits  of  disagreement.     The  friars  approached  that  limit  with  their 


Fifteen         ^j^^  Strange  Theories  of  the  Southern  Heretics  75 

new  ideas;  the  Waldensians  and  other  sects  of  southern  Europe  went 
beyond  it,  and  were  condemned  by  the  church  as  heretics. 

Note  2.  Who  were  the  Southern  Heretics?  It  is  important  to 
know  the  facts  about  these  southern  Europeans  because  they  were 
pioneers  of  reformed  Christianity.  From  them  to  the  German  Refor- 
mation of  Luther  the  development  of  independence  in  rehgion  was 
steady.  They  were  of  two  kinds.  One  class  believed  contrary  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  church,  and  usually  are  known  by  the  name  of 
Albigensians  from  Albi,  a  city  in  southern  France.  The  other  class 
cared  less  for  matters  of  belief,  but  were  particular  about  conduct. 
They  were  the  Waldensians,  so  called  from  their  founder,  Peter  Waldo. 
The  Albigensians  held  ideas  about  good  and  evil  that  were  oriental. 
There  had  always  been  a  closer  connection  between  the  East  and 
southern  France  than  with  any  other  part  of  western  Europe,  so  this 
was  not  surprising.  They  were  so  hateful  to  the  church  that  the  pope 
finally  pronounced  their  condemnation,  and  sent  a  crusade  to  root 
them  out  most  cruelly.  Parts  of  southern  France  that  had  been  among 
the  most  prosperous  and  progressive  were  turned  into  desert,  and  a 
great  many  lives  destroyed.  The  Waldensians  were  quite  different, 
resembling  closely  some  of  the  later  evangelical  denominations  of 
Protestants,  but  they  too  were  compelled  to  suffer  for  the  sin  of  heresy. 

Note  3.  The  Story  of  the  Waldensians.  There  were  several 
localities  in  southern  Europe  where  people  were  becoming  discon- 
tented with  the  conduct  of  the  priests,  and  distrustful  of  the  methods 
and  teaching  of  the  church.  Three  powerful  groups  are  the  Poor 
Men  of  Lyons  in  southern  France,  the  Poor  Men  of  Lombardy  in 
northern  Italy,  and  the  Austrian  dissenters. 

The  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  were  followers  of  Peter  Waldo.  His  story 
is  a  reminder  of  the  life  of  Francis  of  Assisi.  He  was  a  well-to-do 
merchant  of  a  French  city,  but  local  incidents  led  him  to  accept  for 
himself  the  same  principle  that  inspired  Francis.  He  disposed  of  his 
property  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  and  went  out  preaching  the  doc- 
trine of  a  simple  gospel,  fashioning  his  rule  of  life  from  the  Bible.  He 
had  parts  of  it  translated  into  his  own  language,  as  he  did  not  know 
Latin,  and  committed  to  memory  a  large  portion.  Copies  were  dis- 
tributed, and  Waldo  and  the  disciples  who  gathered  about  him  ex- 
plained to  the  people  that  in  the  Bible  was  to  be  found  a  sufl5cient 
guide  to  the  way  of  life.  At  the  same  time  they  criticised  the  conduct 
of  the  Catholic  clergy,  pronouncing  them  effeminate  and  unscrupulous, 
and  unsafe  as  religious  guides.  Naturally  they  were  condemned  by 
the  archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  failed  to  receive  the  approval  of  the 


76  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


pope.    They    were    especially    obnoxious    because   as    laymen   they 
claimed  to  be  sufficient  to  themselves  without  the  clergy. 

The  French  Waldensians  spread  eastward  and  there  they  met  the 
Poor  Men  of  Lombardy.  They  were  sympathetic  with  each  other 
in  most  points,  and  all  came  to  be  known  as  Waldensians.  Their 
ideas  spread  into  Germany  and  Austria,  even  as  far  north  as  the  Baltic 
Sea.  They  were  especially  numerous  in  the  Swiss  mountains,  and 
often  escaped  there  from  persecution.  They  became  influential  in 
forwarding  reformation  ideas. 

Note  4.  The  Principles  of  the  Waldensians.  The  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Waldensians  was  that  the  Bible  was  their  authority 
in  matters  of  religion.  Out  of  that  theory  grew  the  doctrine  of  indi- 
vidual independence  from  Catholic  control.  It  was  not  the  desire  of 
these  humble  people  to  get  out  of  the  church.  They  were  a  company 
of  spiritually  minded  men  and  women  within  the  one  great  church  of 
God,  but  they  trusted  His  word  rather  than  the  teaching  of  the  church. 
Another  of  their  principles  was  that  every  person  who  felt  the  call  of 
God  must  preach  the  truth  as  he  understood  it.  It  was  better  also 
that  a  layman  should  administer  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  than 
for  a  corrupt  priest  to  do  it;  and  many  of  them  thought  that  no  one 
had  a  right  to  baptism  until  he  had  had  a  real  religious  experience.  Of 
course,  this  was  wholly  contrary  to  the  sacerdotal  idea  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  that  the  salvation  of  every  individual  depended  on 
participation  in  the  sacraments  at  the  hands  of  a  properly  ordained 
priest.  The  Waldensians  seemed  to  threaten  the  destruction  of  the 
whole  ecclesiastical  system  that  had  been  so  long  and  carefully  reared. 

Note  5.  Three  Ways  of  Checking  Heresy.  Principles  like  these 
that  seemed  so  hostile  to  the  very  idea  of  the  church  were  too  dangerous 
to  be  tolerated  by  the  Catholic  leaders.  There  were  three  possible  meth- 
ods of  checking  this  kind  of  heresy.  Its  causes  might  be  removed  by 
curing  the  corruptions  of  the  clergy ;  Pope  Innocent  III  tried  to  do  this 
by  calling  a  council  in  his  Lateran  palace,  but  this  plan  failed.  Another 
way  was  to  cut  off  the  heretics  from  the  church  by  a  decree  of  excom- 
munication. This  made  them  outlaws  in  earth  and  heaven,  and  was 
the  favorite  weapon  of  the  medieval  popes;  but  it  was  not  effective 
with  people  who  did  not  depend  upon  priests  to  admit  them  to  heaven, 
and  who  renounced  voluntarily  the  good  tilings  of  earth.  The  third 
method  was  by  persecution  and  punishment. 

The  stories  of  the  martyrdom  of  heretics  at  the  hands  of  Catholics 
bring  to  mind  the  sad  tales  of  pagan  persecution  of  the  early  Christians. 
The  spirit  of  the  persecutors  had  not  changed.     In  the  first  case  it  was 


Fifteen  fj^j^^  Strange  Theories  of  the  Southern  Heretics  77 

the  Roman  state  and  in  the  second  case  the  Roman  church,  but  in  each 
case  individuals  were  punished  because  they  dared  to  set  themselves 
against  an  established  system. 

Note  6.  The  Inquisition.  Large  armies  were  sent  against  the 
Albigensians.  The  Waldensians  were  searched  for  by  expert  per- 
secutors, and  brought  before  a  religious  court  that  became  notorious 
for  its  zeal  in  deahng  with  heretics.  This  was  the  court  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion. Any  suspicious  person  might  be  brought  before  the  Inquisition, 
and  be  tried  by  the  usual  harsh  methods  of  the  day.  Torture  was  used 
to  wring  confession  of  guilt  from  the  person  on  trial.  If  the  accused 
gave  way  he  was  forgiven,  but  had  to  suffer  the  punishment  of  long 
imprisonment.  If  he  persisted  he  was  turned  over  to  the  civil  courts 
to  be  dealt  with,  which  meant  burning  ahve  without  delay.  Some 
were  banished  instead  of  being  burned;  hanging  and  drowning  were 
other  methods  of  punishment  used  in  some  localities.  The  Inquisi- 
tion became  famous  for  the  number  of  its  victims  and  the  severity 
of  its  punishments. 

Note  7.  ReKgious  Kindred  of  the  Waldensians.  The  outbreak  of 
an  independent  evangehcal  type  of  Christianity  in  southern  Europe 
was  not  the  only  evidence  that  there  was  an  increasing  unrest  among 
the  people  in  religious  matters.  The  Bible  was  translated  into  many 
languages,  and  read  more  than  it  had  been  before.  It  was  difficult  to 
harmonize  much  in  the  Catholic  church  with  what  the  Bible  said,  for 
the  church  had  drifted  far  from  the  spirit  of  Jesus.  As  far  away  as 
England  John  Wycliffe  translated  the  Bible  into  the  tongue  of  the 
people,  declared  that  Scripture  was  superior  to  the  pope,  and  sent  out 
his  poor  priests  to  preach  the  simple  gospel.  In  Bohemia  John  Huss 
demanded  from  the  pulpit  that  the  church  reform  itself.  In  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  choice  spirits  known  as  Mystics  rejoiced  in  a  more 
spiritual  religion  than  the  church  gave  them. 

In  the  two  last-named  countries  were  many  little  groups,  mostly  of 
working  people,  who  found  delight  in  meeting  for  Bible  study  and 
prayer,  and  had  no  confidence  in  the  church.  They  lived,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  their  enemies,  most  exemplary  lives.  They  were 
pure  in  speech  and  in  living,  modest  and  peacefully  disposed  among 
their  neighbors.  They  were  not  eager  for  wealth.  They  brought  up 
their  children  carefully,  and  educated  them  in  schools  that  accepted 
the  same  principles.  They  were  friends  of  the  sick  and  afflicted. 
Like  the  Waldensians  they  were  accustomed  to  call  themselves  the 
Brethren.  In  Bohemia  there  was  a  similar  union  of  Brethren,  and  it 
is  significant  that  Grermans,  Bohemians  and  Waldensians  all  came 


78  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson. 

to  use  the  same  catechism,  printed  by  the  firm  of  Koburgers  in  the 
German  city  of  Nurnberg. 

Understanding  these  various  sects  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  it 
is  easier  to  see  how  the  Continent  was  being  prepared  for  a  reforma- 
tion in  religion  that  was  going  to  end  the  universal  sway  of  the  Catholic 
church  in  western  Europe,  and  after  a  time  to  give  freedom  of  thought 
and  action  to  the  people  of  the  West. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  was  Francis  of  Assisi? 

2.  Outline  the  history  of  the  friars. 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Define  schism  and  heresy. 


2.  What  were  the  differences  between  Albigensians  and  Walden- 
sians? 

3.  Tell  the  facts  about  the  Hfe  of  Peter  Waldo. 


4.  Where  did  the  Waldensians  spread  to  in  Europe? 

5.  What  were  the  principles  of  the  Waldensians? 

6.  How  was  the  Roman  church  accustomed  to  combat  heresy? 

7.  Compare  ancient  persecution  with  the  martyrdom  of  the  heretics. 

8.  Explain  the  methods  of  the  Inquisition. 


'^»*^"**  Life  on  an  English  Manor  79 

9.  Who  were  Wycliffe  and  Huss? 

10.  Describe  the  medieval  "  Brethren.'* 


Reading  References. 

{!)  Robinson:  History  of  Western  Eurojw,  pp.  216-225.     (2)  Whit- 
tier:  The  Vaudois  Teacher.     (3)  Hale:  hi  His  Name. 


Lesson  16.    LIFE  ON  AN  ENGLISH  MANOR.    The  Country  Folk 
and  their  Superstitions. 

Sources. — Domesday  Book,  an  inventory  of  the  eleventh  century;  records 
of  the  manors;  rolls  of  the  manor  courts;  various  surveys,  lists  and  descriptions; 
Langland's  Piers  the  Plowman. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding 
lesson,  and  be  prepared  to  answer  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Points  to  be  especially  noted:  (a)  how  the  peasants 
lived  on  the  manor;  (6)  what  were  their  ideas;  (c)  the  parish  priests;  (d)  the 
awakening  ambition  of  the  peasants;  (e)  the  influence  of  Wy cliff e's  priests. 

3.  Note  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion:  How  could  the  priests 
have  made  religion  a  more  real  help  to  the  peasants.'* 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  for  the  note-book:  (a)  Write  out  in  full  the 
summary  of  the  last  lesson.  (6)  Make  a  comparison  of  th-  life  of  the  peasants 
and  the  Hfe  of  the  farmers  to-day  by  means  of  two  lists.  In  one  column  place 
the  houses,  food  and  clothing,  duties,  religion,  etc.,  of  the  peasants,  and  in  the 
parallel  column  the  corresponding  conditions  of  the  present  day  in  the  United 
States,  (c)  Write  an  imaginary  sketch  of  the  life  of  a  priest  in  a  parish  such  as 
has  been  described. 

Note  1.  Classes  of  People  in  the  Middle  Ages.  While  the  clergy 
of  the  church  were  claiming  so  much  authority  for  themselves,  and 
while  in  some  places  new  ideas  were  being  worked  out  contrary  to 
them,  ordinary  every  day  life  was  going  on  after  the  medieval  fashion. 
History  tells  of  eventful  life;  the  daily  humdrum  existence  of  the  com- 
mon people  usually  has  not  been  recorded.  But  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  life  went  on  in  rude  fashion,  mostly  on  the  farms;  and  this 
we  can  understand  in  a  measure  from  documents  that  have  remained 
until  now. 

The  people  of  the  Middle  Ages  belonged  in  three  great  classes. 


80  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^""^ 

There  were  the  clergy  from  the  bishops  down,  the  nobles  who  held  the 
land  and  did  the  fighting  wliile  the  clergy  did  the  praying,  and  the 
great  mass  of  the  people,  who  were  regarded  as  of  small  account. 
They  were,  however,  the  foundation  on  wliich  the  social  structure 
rested.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  had  few  rights;  they  were 
mostly  serfs  of  the  nobles  or  lords;  and  they  were  oppressed  as  well  as 
helped  by  the  church. 

Note  2.  How  the  Land  was  Held  in  England.  There  is  more  infor- 
mation about  land  in  England  and  France  than  elsewhere,  and  the 
mother  country  is  most  interesting  to  an  American.  The  land  there  is 
to  be  thought  of  as  in  the  hands  of  the  lords,  who  lived  each  on  his  own 
estate  in  a  castle  or  manor  house,  allotting  lands  to  common  folk, 
and  requiring  of  them  rent  or  service  in  exchange.  The  houses  of  the 
peasants  were  grouped  in  a  small  village  not  far  from  the  lord's  house; 
near  the  center  of  the  village  was  the  parish  church,  and  close  by  the 
house  of  the  priest.  Monasteries  were  scattered  over  the  country, 
and  they  often  held  lands  on  which  the  peasants  worked,  as  on  the 
estate  of  a  noble.  The  bishops  of  the  church  lived  in  larger  towns 
where  they  had  their  cathedrals,  but  such  towns  were  few  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  As  a  rule  people  on  one  estate  had  little  to  do  with  any  other 
estate,  and  took  care  of  themselves  with  little  outside  trade. 

Note  3.  How  the  Peasants  Lived.  The  real  life  of  a  peasant  on  an 
English  manor  about  the  year  1300  can  best  be  understood  from  the 
story  of  a  single  individual.  John  Cay  worth  lived  on  the  manor  of 
Bernhorne  in  Sussex,  near  the  place  where  William  of  Normandy 
fought  the  battle  that  gave  him  the  conquest  of  England  nearly  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  before.  The  whole  estate  contained  four 
hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  tillable  land  besides  woodland.  Of  this  land 
John  Cayworth  was  allotted  thirty  acres,  for  which  he  worked  on  the 
farm  of  his  lord  enough  days  to  amount  to  the  worth  of  two  and  one- 
fourth  shillings  a  year,  and  paid  a  rent  in  coin  and  poultry  of  as  much 
more  annually. 

John  and  his  family  lived  in  a  hut  that  was  little  more  than  a  hovel. 
It  was  made  of  wattled  sticks  cemented  with  mud,  and  had  a  roof  of 
turf  with  a  hole  in  it  to  let  out  the  smoke.  There  was  only  one  room 
inside  that  served  for  living-room,  dining-room,  bed-room  and  kitchen. 
A  single  garment  served  for  clothing  day  and  night,  a  bunch  of  dirty 
straw  on  the  floor  for  a  bed.  Cooking  utensils  were  few  and  of  the 
rudest  sort;  black  bread  and  cider  or  beer  the  staple  food  and  drink. 
There  was  no  window,  and  but  a  single  door  to  the  hut.  In  an  adjoin- 
ing shed  or  pen  might  h(^  found  a  pig  and  a  few  hens.     The  farm  yard 


Sixteen 


Life  on  an  English  Manor  81 


was  small  and  fenced  in.  The  rudest  agricultural  implements  were 
used  in  the  cultivation  of  the  fields,  and  the  variety  of  crops  was  small. 
Father,  mother  and  children  worked  out  of  doors  in  all  weathers,  with 
no  recreation  or  amusement  month  after  month.  They  were  abso- 
lutely ignorant  and  exceedingly  superstitious.  All  sorts  of  strange 
customs  were  due  to  their  fear  of  ghosts,  demons  and  witches.  They 
trusted  in  charms,  and  practised  incantations.  Certain  days  were 
lucky,  certain  accidents  unlucky.  They  were  afraid  of  the  priests, 
because  they  feared  the  power  that  they  possessed  to  harm  them. 
Many  of  their  religious  customs  were  due  to  their  superstitions.  They 
were  confident  that  the  sign  of  the  cross  was  a  sure  protection,  and 
the  medieval  church  constantly  encouraged  them  in  their  superstitious 
ideas  that  it  might  keep  its  control  over  them  absolute. 

Note  4.  The  Parish  Church.  On  Sundays  and  holy  days  John 
Cayworth  joined  the  other  peasants  of  the  manor  in  the  parish  church. 
The  priest  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  common  people,  knew  their 
wants,  and  ministered  to  them  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  for  him 
by  his  bishop.  Too  many  priests  had  little  real  sympathy  with  their 
people,  but  they  performed  the  routine  service  that  was  required  of 
them,  baptizing  the  children,  marrying  the  young  people,  and  burying 
the  dead.  In  the  church  the  main  part  of  the  service  was  the  mass. 
To  share  in  the  prayers  and  to  taste  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  was 
to  be  most  religious  and  to  be  safe  from  harm;  to  have  the  forgiveness 
of  the  priest  for  sins  committed,  and  to  have  his  blessing,  made  one 
entirely  easy  in  mind. 

It  is  important  to  realize  that  to  the  masses  of  the  people  the  Catholic 
Cliristianity  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  not  far  removed  from  paganism. 
They  knew  nothing  of  religious  experience  or  of  Christian  doctrine. 
One  was  left  to  the  monks,  the  other  to  the  schoolmen.  Few  of  them 
ever  heard  a  sermon  on  Christian  living.  Their  Christianity  consisted 
of  a  vague  idea  of  God  and  Christ,  a  vivid  sense  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
as  a  protector  and  of  the  mass  as  a  means  of  escape  from  eternal  tor- 
ture, and  a  wholesome  fear  of  the  priest  as  powerful  to  help  or  harm 
them.  If  they  could  have  a  few  feet  of  ground  in  the  churchyard 
when  they  died,  and  a  few  prayers  to  help  them  through  purgatory, 
they  might  feel  that  their  religious  experience  was  complete. 

Note  5.  The  Grind  of  Existence.  Such  a  life  as  that  which  has 
been  pictured  had  little  to  relieve  its  dull  and  dreary  monotony.  There 
was  no  cheering  social  intercourse  between  neighbors.  Life  was  made 
up  of  a  continuous  struggle  for  existence.  The  crops  often  failed  and 
the  people  starved  to  death.    The  lord  felt  no  interest  in  his  serfs 


82  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


except  to  get  what  was  due  him.  There  was  disease  as  well  as  famine, 
aggravated  by  the  habits  of  living.  There  were  no  hospitals  or  asylums, 
not  even  almshouses,  except  as  the  monasteries  relieved  suffering. 
Peasant  customs  were  rough  and  cruel.  It  was  easy  to  gather  a  gang 
to  burn  a  hayrick  or  plunder  an  unpopular  peasant.  Burglary,  arson 
and  even  murder  were  common.  Sometimes  peasants  murdered  an 
unpopular  lord;  frequently  they  ran  away,  though  the  law  compelled 
them  to  remain  on  the  land.  It  was  difficult  to  get  about  over  the 
country,  for  there  were  no  roads.  The  people  were  almost  without 
comfort,  without  civilization,  without  morals,  and  almost  without 
religion. 

Note  6.  How  the  Peasant  became  a  Free  Man.  Life  on  the  Eng- 
lish manors  could  not  always  remain  like  this.  Now  and  then  there 
came  news  from  the  outside  world  that  stirred  the  dull  minds  of  the 
peasants.  A  wandering  minstrel  or  a  pedlar  would  bring  word  that  a 
market  town  was  growing  up  a  few  miles  away,  where  it  was  possible 
to  get  coin  of  the  realm  for  extra  produce,  with  which  the  peasant 
might  purchase  more  privileges  from  his  lord.  Or  if  he  could  gel 
away  to  the  town  and  remain  undiscovered  for  a  year  and  a  day,  he 
would  be  a  free  man.  One  and  another  broke  away.  Opportunity 
was  opening  its  doors  to  a  broader  life. 

Now  and  then  a  travelling  lord  or  bishop  came  their  way,  and  from 
persons  in  their  retinue  would  come  tales  of  a  larger  world,  and  am- 
bition would  begin  to  glow,  and  unrest  would  take  possession  of  the 
soul,  and  the  peasant  would  think  hard  how  he  might  improve  his  life, 
whether  he  should  go  or  stay. 

And  then  would  come  a  travelling  priest,  one  of  John  Wycliffe's 
Lollards,  and  chide  them  for  their  submission  to  the  oppression  of 
the  lord  and  for  their  superstitious  faith  in  their  ignorant  priest. 
They  declared  that  no  priest  could  change  the  bread  of  the  mass  into 
the  body  of  Christ,  as  all  good  Catholics  thought.  That  was  not 
the  true  basis  of  religion.  They  must  find  out  what  was  the  teaching 
of  the  New  Testament  and  obey  that,  if  they  would  be  saved  in  the 
time  of  terror  at  the  judgment  day. 

So  by  degrees  the  English  peasant  learned  to  think  of  freedom — 
freedom  that  would  break  the  bonds  that  held  him  in  service  on  the 
farm  where  his  ancestors  had  toiled  for  many  generations,  freedom 
that  would  give  him  a  knowledge  of  the  world  and  a  share  in  that 
larger  life  of  which  he  caught  occasional  glimpses,  freedom  from  the 
superstition  by  which  the  priest  kept  his  soul  shackled,  and  knowledge 
of  a  truer  faith  that  should  give  him  light  and  joy  in  two  worlds. 


Sixteen 


Life  on  an  English  Manor  83 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Where  did  heresy  make  rapid  growth  about  the  time  of  Francis 
of  Assisi? 

2.  What  were  the  leading  sects,  and  how  did  they  differ? 

3.  What  was  the  effect  of  persecution? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  are  the  people  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  be  classified? 


2.  How  did  each  of  these  classes  live? 


3.  Describe  the  house  of  John  Cay  worth. 


4.  In  what  ways  were  people  superstitious? 


5.  To  what  class  did  the  parish  priest  belong? 


6.  How  did  the  church  touch  the  life  of  the  people  on  the  manor? 


7.  Describe  the  grind  of  existence. 


8.  What  shows  that  morals  were  not  good? 


9.  Explain  how  a  peasant  would  be  influenced  towards  ambitioa 


64  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


10.  How  were  the  poor  priests  of  Wycliffe  different  from  the  ordinary 
priests  of  the  parish? 

Reading  References. 
(i)  Robinson:  History  of  Western  Europe,  ch.    18.     (2)  Jessopp: 
Village  Life  in  Norfolk  Six  Hundred    Years  Ago,  a  chapter  in  a 
volume  of  essays  entitled  the  Coming  of  the  Friars,     (S)   Cheyney: 
Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  ch.  2. 


Lesson  17.    FLORENCE  IN  THE  DAYS  OF  SAVONAROLA.    The 

Revival  of  Learning  and  Morals. 

Sources. — Machiavelli's  History  of  Florence;  city  and  town  charters;  ordi- 
nances of  English  gilds;  chronicles  of  the  German  cities;  Savonarola's  sermons 
and  letters. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding 
lesson  in  preparation  for  class  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  rise  of  the  towns  and 
the  fame  of  Florence;  (6)  the  awakening  of  new  ideas;  (c)  the  need  of  reform  in 
morals  and  religion;  (d)  Savonarola  as  a  prophet. 

3.  Give  special  thought  to  the  following  subject  for  class  discussion:  What 
part  should  the  church  have  in  moral  reform? 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  the  summary 
of  the  preceding  lesson  is  written  out  in  full,  (b)  Draw  a  map  of  Italy  to  show 
Rome,  Florence,  Pisa,  Genoa,  Venice,  (c)  Make  lists  of  the  leading  artists 
and  writers  of  the  Renaissance,  with  dates  of  birth  and  death.  Consult  ency- 
clopedias, or  Myers'  The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  18.  {d)  Make  a  list  of  the  most 
famous  classical  writers  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Note  1.  The  City  of  Florence.  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  were  few 
towns  except  those  Roman  municipalities  which  had  survived  the 
period  of  destruction.  Among  these  was  Florence,  which  had  been 
founded  in  the  second  century  before  the  Christian  era  when  one  of 
the  through  Roman  roads  was  built  to  the  North.  The  city  was 
located  in  the  wide  valley  of  the  river  Arno,  and  is  regarded  by  some 
travellers  as  the  most  attractive  place  in  Italy  because  of  its  location, 
its  history,  and  its  fame  as  an  art  center.  Florence  passed  through  the 
usual  vicissitudes  of  a  Roman  town  during  the  German  conquest  and 
in  the  later  medieval  disturbances,  and  like  others  of  the  Italian  towns 
kept  its  independence  in  the  days  of  struggle  with  the  ambitious  German 
emperors.  In  the  thirteenth  century  Dante  was  born  in  Florence,  and 
the  fame  that  came  to  him  as  the  greatest  poet  of  the  Renaissance  shed 


Seventeen  Florence  in  the  Days  of  Savonarola  85 

luster  on  his  birthplace.  Petrarch  was  his  illustrious  successor.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  Florence  produced  world-renowned  artists  in 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  was 
acknowledged  as  the  center  of  the  Renaissance  under  the  patronage 
of  the  family  of  the  Medici,  despots  of  the  city.  In  the  closing  years 
of  the  fifteenth  century  a  famous  monk  and  prophet,  Savonarola, 
preached  and  suffered  for  the  cause  of  reform.  Florence  is  to-day  one 
of  the  leading  cities  of  modern  Italy. 

Note  2.  The  Rise  of  the  Medieval  Towns.  From  the  eleventh 
century  onward  there  was  an  urban  growth.  The  modern  awakemng 
was  stirring  the  people  of  the  country.  Men  like  John  Cayworth  were 
waking  up,  and  better  men  than  he  were  ambitious  to  make  life  worth 
while  There  were  profits  to  be  made  from  trade,  and  new  centers  ot 
prominence  sprang  into  existence.  Charters  were  obtained  from  lords 
and  kings  granting  privileges  that  usually  included  self-government 
The  crusades  weakened  the  nobility  and  correspondingly  strengthened 
the  townsmen,  and  the  crusades  furnished  a  new  impulse  to  broaden 
traffic  between  East  and  West.  Along  the  fines  of  commerce  grew  up 
large  towns,  like  Augsburg  in  Germany  and  Bruges  in  Belgmm.  In 
Italy  Venice  and  Genoa  grew  rich  and  powerful  as  shipping  centers. 
Florence  became  especially  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  the  loom 
Smaller  towns  sprang  up  everywhere  in  favorable  situations  as  local 

centers 

Into 'these  towns  drifted  the  countrymen  to  become  free  and  pros- 
perous. Into  such  towns  went  the  friars,  the  Waldensian  preachers,  and 
Wvcliffe's  poor  priests,  and  helped  and  stimulated  the  people.  There 
were  organized  the  universities  in  which  centered  the  learmng  of  the 
day,  many  of  which  became  hot-beds  of  new  thought.  There  too  were 
the  guilds  of  merchants  and  artisans,  corresponding  in  a  way  to  the 
trusts  and  trade  unions  of  the  present.  It  was  in  the  towns  that  progress 
was  moving  irresistibly  forward. 

Note  3.  The  Renaissance.  Nothing  was  so  likely  to  stimulate  a 
new  intellectual  fife  as  this  mental  awakening  in  the  towns  Business 
made  the  merchants  keen,  and  the  artisans  developed  skill  of  work- 
manship and  the  power  of  invention.  The  minds  of  the  scholars  were 
trained  in  the  schools  and  in  the  numerous  discussions  ot  the  day.  A 
new  interest  awoke  in  the  ancient  classics.  Greek  scholars  moved 
from  the  East  to  Italy  when  Constantinople  feU  before  the  Turks  in 
1453  Petrarch  collected  old  manuscripts.  Dante,  in  the  spirit  ot 
Virgil,  sang  in  Itafian  verse  of  the  religious  visions  that  sprang  into 
being  in  hit  soul.     Men  loved  that  which  was  very  old,  and  dared  to 


86  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


dream  of  things  that  were  very  new.  A  wonderful  outburst  of  artistic 
skill  gave  to  Italy  a  rich  and  beautiful  dowry  of  architecture,  sculpture 
and  painting,  such  as  the  world  had  never  received  since  the  Age  of 
Pericles  in  ancient  Athens.  In  the  schools,  which  had  been  filled  with 
a  scholastic  spirit  that  had  little  to  do  with  real  life,  was  felt  the  stirring 
of  the  spirit  of  a  new  learning  that  was  to  bring  in  the  modern  age. 
Medieval  Latin  gave  way  to  the  classical  Greek  and  Latin  as  the  lan- 
guages of  education,  and  the  Romance  tongues  began  to  exhibit  literary 
charm.  In  the  whole  realm  of  thought  there  had  come  a  new  birth — 
this  is  the  meaning  of  the  Renaissance. 

Note  4.  Political  Changes.  The  spirit  of  independence  and  prog- 
ress was  seen  not  only  in  the  tradesmen  of  the  towns,  in  the  scholars 
of  the  universities,  and  in  the  artists  of  Florence  and  the  other  Italian 
cities,  but  among  the  princes  of  Europe  as  well.  They  too  were  throw- 
ing off  the  burdens  that  had  prevented  the  achievement  of  their  am- 
bitions. Two  circumstances  had  favored  them.  The  church  had 
passed  the  day  when  the  papacy  reached  the  climax  of  its  authority 
under  Innocent  III.  England,  France  and  Germany  not  long  after 
had  reasserted  successfully  their  national  independence  of  the  pope. 
That  gave  the  kings  an  opportunity  to  develop  a  real  national  feeling 
and  a  loyalty  to  the  kingship.  The  second  gain  had  come  from  the 
destruction  of  great  numbers  of  the  feudal  nobility  during  the  Crusades. 
Hundreds  of  nobles  had  mortgaged  their  lands  to  the  townsmen  who  had 
money,  and  had  gone  off  to  the  wars.  A  great  many  never  returned, 
and  as  their  property  passed  to  the  merchants  of  the  towns,  so  their 
political  rights  passed  to  the  kings.  The  princes  and  the  people  were 
growing  strong  at  the  expense  of  the  nobles. 

Note  5.  Religion  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  The  greatest  need  of 
the  age  was  a  moral  and  religious  reform.  Socially,  politically,  and 
intellectually  the  age  was  awake.  The  church  hindered  the  highest 
progress.  When  the  pope  lost  his  grip  upon  the  states  of  Europe  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  papacy  declined  very  rapidly.  For  about 
seventy  years  the  popes  made  their  home  at  Avignon  in  southern 
France  instead  of  Rome  because  of  Roman  political  and  social  dis- 
turbances. The  papal  court  became  magnificent  and  luxurious,  but 
was  believed  generally  to  be  corrupt  in  manners  and  morals.  The 
people  of  western  Europe  were  losing  much  of  their  supreme  con- 
fidence in  the  pope  of  Rome.  The  papal  court  returned  to  Rome,  but 
there  followed  a  disgraceful  contest  between  two  popes  and  their  suc- 
cessors, each  claiming  a  lawful  election  to  the  papacy  by  the  electoral 
college  of  cardinals. 


Seventeen 


Florence  in  the  Days  of  Savonarola  87 


While  the  papacy  was  suffering  in  this  way  in  the  estimation  of  the 
people,  the  clergy  of  the  church  were  becoming  blamed  more  than 
ever  for  their  shortcomings.  Bishops  and  priests,  monks  and  nuns, 
were  charged  with  greediness  and  loose  living.  The  leaders  of  the 
church  were  condemned  by  public  opinion  for  the  very  same  faults 
that  had  called  out  Paul's  condemnation  of  the  Corinthian  Christians. 
Perhaps  the  Catholic  clergy  were  no  worse  than  they  had  been. 
It  may  be  that  the  public  conscience  was  becoming  more  sensitive. 
It  was  unquestionably  a  fact  that  there  was  great  need  of  reform. 

Note  6.    Church   Councils   and  the    Question  of  Reform.    The 

university  in  the  city  of  Paris  demanded  that  the  pope  should  call  a 
council  of  the  church  leaders  to  bring  about  reform.  It  was  a  grave 
question  whether  the  church  could  reform  itself,  whether  there  must  not 
come  first  a  revolution  in  rehgion  that  would  change  the  character 
of  religious  leadership  and  even  of  religious  teaching.  But  reforming 
councils  were  called  in  a  vain  attempt  to  effect  a  change.  At  Pisa  near 
Florence,  at  Constance  and  Basle  in  Switzerland,  the  church  tried  to 
pacify  its  popes,  to  purify  its  clergy,  and  to  punish  disobedient  heretics, 
but  with  no  permanent  results.  It  was  becoming  apparent  that  only 
through  a  powerful  revival  of  religious  and  moral  feeHng  could  there 
be  produced  a  real  and  lasting  reform. 

Note  7.  Savonarola,  the  Florentine  Friar.  The  friars  were  to  be 
the  heralds  of  the  religious  awakening.  The  greatest  of  them  was  to 
arise  in  Germany,  but  as  Jesus  had  His  herald  in  John  the  Baptizer,  so 
Luther  was  preceded  by  Savonarola.  This  Florentine  friar  was  a 
devoted  CathoHc.  He  entered  a  Dominican  monastery  because  he 
saw  the  moral  corruption  in  the  world,  and  because  he  was  disappointed 
in  love.  This  was  in  1475.  Ten  years  later  he  became  noted  as  an 
eloquent  preacher,  and  in  the  years  that  followed  he  was  conspicuous 
among  the  leaders  of  the  city.  Florence  was  then  ruled  by  the  illus- 
trious Lorenzo  de  Medici.  In  the  most  fearless  fashion  Savonarola 
preached  to  thousands  of  the  citizens  on  the  judgments  of  the  book  of 
Revelation.  He  condemned  the  Medici  as  despots  in  Florence;  he 
denounced  the  Florentines  for  their  lethargy  and  their  sins;  he  con- 
demned the  pagan  customs  that  had  been  revived  in  the  Renaissance; 
he  thundered  against  the  rich  and  profligate  monks;  and  threatened 
the  sure  judgments  of  God  upon  all  who  would  not  reform.  For  a  time 
his  appeals  met  with  tumultuous  response.  Men  and  women  changed 
their  habits,  and  threw  their  articles  of  luxury  on  the  immense  bon- 
fires that  celebrated  the  victory  of  righteousness.  But  Savonarola 
became  involved  in  ecclesiastical  difficulties  and  in  city  politics.    The 


88  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


fickle  people  turned  away  from  him.  He  lost  his  leadership  in  Florence, 
and  very  soon  he  was  seized  and  put  to  death  by  strangling,  and  his 
body  burned.  This  was  in  1498.  Savonarola  will  never  live  in  liis- 
tory  as  statesman  or  theologian.  He  was  not  even  a  heretic  in  the  sense 
that  he  disbelieved  in  either  church  or  pope.  He  was  only  a  voice  in 
the  streets  of  Florence,  but  as  a  prophet  of  reform  he  belongs  among 
the  heroes  of  all  religious  history. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  was  the  condition  of  peasant  life  in  England? 

2.  How  did  the  peasants  practise  religion? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Tell  the  history  of  Florence  from  its  origin. 


2.  Name  several  of  its  famous  citizens. 

3.  Explain  the  growth  of  the  medieval  towns,  and  name  a  few. 

4.  Define  charters,  guilds,  universities. 

5.  Explain  the  meaning  of  Renaissance,  and  how  it  came  to  be 

6.  With  what  ancient  city  may  Florence  be  compared?     Why? 

7.  What  was  the  greatest  need  of  the  age? 

8.  Explain  the  weaknesses  of  the  papacy  and  of  the  clergy. 


Eighteen  jj^^  ^  Saxou  Mouk  Sct  Germany  on  Fire  89 

9.  In  what  way  was  an  attempt  made  to  secure  reform? 

10.  Who  was  the  prophet  of  reform  in  Florence?     Sketch  his  career. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Myers:  The  Middle  Ages,  chs.  16,  18.     (2)  Schaff:  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,  V,  ii,  pp.  684-716.     (S)  Ehot:  Romola,  chs.  71,  72. 


Lesson  18.    HOW  A  SAXON  MONK  SET  GERMANY  ON  FIRE. 

Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 

Sources. — Chronicles  of  the  German  cities;  the  works  of  Luther,  and  his 
letters;  the  reports  of  the  Diet  at  Worms  by  Aleander,  one  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  pope;  Melanchthon's  Life  of  Luther;  Erasmus'  Praise  of  Folly,  a 
satire  on  the  medieval  Schoolmen. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson 
preparatory  to  questions  in  the  class. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  temper  of  Germany  in 
the  early  sixteenth  century;  (6)  the  outbreak  of  Luther  against  indulgences; 
(c)  his  brave  defense  at  the  Diet  of  Worms;  (d)  the  place  of  the  Bible  in  the 
Reformation;  (e)  the  principles  of  Protestantism. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  discussion  in  the  class:  What  do  you 
consider  the  important  points  in  your  personal  religion? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(6)  Find  places  in  the  New  Testament  where  faith  in  Jesus  is  spoken  of  as  the 
means  of  salvation,  (c)  Find  out  how  the  English  Bible  now  in  use  came  into 
existence,  and  note  down  the  story  of  the  version  of  King  James  in  1611  and  of 
the  Revised  Version  of  1881. 

Note  1.  Germany  in  the  Early  Sixteenth  Century.  The  fifteenth 
century  had  made  it  certain  that  the  old  culture  had  been  recovered  for 
southern  Europe.  With  this  culture  Italy  might  be  content,  but  it  was 
different  in  northern  Europe.  There  were  heart  longings  in  the  homes 
of  the  German  fatherland  that  neither  art  nor  literature  could  satisfy. 
Culture  was  not  religion,  and  a  revival  of  art  and  learning  was  not 
enough.  Nor  did  the  Catholic  church,  with  its  grand  cathedrals,  its 
splendid  ritual,  and  its  impressive  celebration  of  the  mass,  give  satis- 
faction. People  were  tired  of  the  corruption  and  greed  of  the  clergy. 
They  were  hungry  for  a  simpler  faith.    The  friends  of  the  Renaissance 


90  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


north  of  the  Alps  hoped  that  the  new  learning  might  bring  religious 
reformation  tln-ough  a  new  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  and  Erasmus  pre- 
pared an  improved  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Reuchlin 
made  important  contributions  to  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament. 
But  this  was  not  for  the  common  people.  The  middle  class  in  the 
towns  was  angry  with  the  established  church  because  it  drained  the 
people  of  their  money  for  the  benefit  of  Rome,  and  this  hurt  trade. 
The  peasants  hoped  for  a  religious  and  social  reform  that  would  free 
them  at  the  same  time  from  the  burdens  of  the  church  and  of  social 
oppression.  The  devout  "  Brethren  "  practised  their  religion  inde- 
pendently of  Roman  direction.  All  were  waiting  for  the  hour  when 
the  voice  of  a  leader  should  summon  the  people  to  a  forward  move- 
ment in  the  interests  of  reform. 

Note  2.  Martin  Luther.  That  leader  was  Martin  Luther.  He 
was  the  man  for  the  crisis.  He  came  out  of  the  ranks  of  the  peasants, 
though  he  was  not  fully  in  sympathy  with  all  their  demands.  He  was 
a  university  graduate,  sympathetic  with  the  new  biblical  learning,  and 
himself  a  teacher  of  the  Bible.  He  belonged  to  a  monastic  order  in 
the  church,  and  diligently  sought  his  own  salvation  by  vigorous  self- 
denial,  but  he  found  peace  only  as  he  put  his  trust  in  God's  mercy,  and, 
like  the  "  Brethren,"  accepted  for  himself  the  simple  gospel  of  Jesus. 
But  Luther  struck  his  first  blow  for  the  Reformation  in  a  way  that  was 
likely  to  please  most  the  men  of  the  middle  class  who  opposed  the  loss 
of  so  much  of  the  people's  money  to  Rome. 

Note  3.  The  Sale  of  Indulgences.  Just  as  Luther  and  all  Ger- 
many were  ready  for  reform  in  the  year  1517,  there  came  into  the  Saxon 
town  of  Wittenberg,  where  Luther  was  a  university  professor,  a  Domin- 
ican friar  named  Tetzel.  He  was  an  agent  of  the  pope  for  the  sale  of 
indulgences.  An  indulgence  was  a  pardon  for  sin.  The  Catholic 
church  claimed  the  forgiveness  of  sin  as  one  of  its  rights.  A  priest 
was  supposed  to  require  repentance  from  the  person  who  had  sinned  be- 
fore pardon  was  granted  that  should  free  the  sinner  from  its  penalty, 
but  a  great  many  priests  were  careless  of  the  spirit  that  was  back  of  the 
form.  In  the  early  sixteenth  century  religion  had  become  shamefully 
commercialized.  Selling  pardons  had  come  to  be  a  profitable  means 
of  raising  money  for  the  church,  and  Tetzel's  special  enterprise  was  to 
get  money  for  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  cathedral  in  Rome.  All  over 
Germany  money  was  going  out  of  the  country  for  this  purpose,  but 
what  was  worse,  people  were  getting  the  idea  that  a  piece  of  paper 
properly  endorsed  was  all  that  was  necessary  to  free  them  from  the 
consequences  of  sin. 


Eighteen         jj^^  ^  SoxoTi  MoTik  Set  Germany  on  Fire  91 

Note  4.  Luther's  Ninety -five  Theses.  Luther  had  come  to  beHeve 
with  all  his  soul  that  it  was  only  through  faith  in  God's  mercy  and 
truth  that  a  person  could  be  saved  from  sin  and  its  penalty.  He  was  a 
man  of  strong  convictions,  and  when  the  streets  of  Wittenberg  echoed 
to  the  voice  of  the  hawker  of  indulgences,  the  Wittenberg  professor  of 
theology  was  greatly  moved.  He  denounced  the  enterprise  from  his 
chair  in  the  university  to  the  students  in  his  classes.  In  the  pulpit 
he  thundered  against  such  an  iniquitous  traffic.  On  the  church  door, 
which  was  often  used  as  a  university  bulletin  board,  he  tacked  a  paper 
on  which  were  written  ninety-five  propositions,  expressing  his  opinions 
on  this  vexed  question.  These  became  historic  as  Luther's  Ninety-five 
Theses,  and  they  precipitated  the  German  Reformation. 

Note  5.  Great  Excitement  in  Germany.  The  theses  had  been 
written  in  Latin,  but  they  were  speedily  translated  and  scattered  broad- 
cast. These  were  what  the  German  people  had  been  waiting  for.  At 
last  they  had  found  their  champion.  Enthusiasm  knew  no  bounds. 
One  man  had  dared  to  speak  out.  The  church  summoned  him  to 
account,  but  Luther  stood  by  his  opinions.  Presently  he  woke  up  to 
the  fact  that  he  was  the  most  talked  of  man  in  Germany  and  the  leader 
of  the  people's  cause.  He  proceeded  to  issue  pamphlets  expressing 
more  clearly  his  religious  ideas.  The  Bible  was  his  authority;  reason 
and  faith  together  interpreted  it  for  him.  Students  flocked  from  all 
parts  of  Germany  to  his  class-room.  He  summoned  the  nobility  to 
withstand  a  corrupt  church.  He  attacked  the  sacraments  of  that 
church.  Finally  he  sent  out  a  trumpet  call  to  every  true  German  to 
realize  his  Christian  freedom  by  taking  his  stand  on  the  gospel  of  a 
personal  experience  of  God's  grace  that  saves  from  sin,  and  brings 
fellowship  with  God  in  Christ.  This  was  the  essence  of  Protestantism, 
and  Luther  thus  became  its  great  exponent. 

Note  6.  The  Diet  of  Worms.  By  these  acts  Luther  had  broken 
completely  with  the  pope  and  the  old  ecclesiastical  system  of  Roman 
Catholicism.  The  pope  took  summary  action  against  him  through 
the  imperial  government  of  Germany.  He  was  summoned  to  attend 
an  assembly,  or  diet,  of  all  the  lay  and  clerical  princes  of  the  realm. 
Knights,  dukes,  and  lords  of  every  degree  would  be  there;  the  great 
dignitaries  of  the  Catholic  church  in  all  Germany,  and  the  delegates 
from  the  pope  himself  would  be  there;  the  emperor  Charles  V,  who  was 
also  king  of  Spain  with  all  her  old  and  new  world  possessions,  would 
be  there;  and  Martin  Luther,  the  Augustinian  friar,  the  heretic  of 
Saxony,  would  have  to  face  them  all  alone.  But  when  his  friends  tried 
to  persuade  him  not  to  go,  he  declared  that  he  should  not  hesitate 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


though  the  devils  in  the  streets  were  as  numerous  as  the  tiles  on  the 
city  roofs.  He  went  in  obedience  to  the  summons.  He  stood  before 
that  august  assembly,  overawed  at  first,  but  with  recovered  courage 
answered  to  the  charge  of  heresy.  When  he  was  taunted  with  dodging 
the  questions  at  issue,  he  declared  boldly:  "  I  will  give  you  an  answer 
which  has  neither  horns  nor  teeth.  Popes  have  erred,  and  councils 
have  erred.  Prove  to  me  out  of  Scripture  that  I  am  wrong,  and  I 
submit.  Till  then  my  conscience  binds  me.  Here  I  stand.  I  can 
do  no  more.  God  help  me.  Amen."  All  day  long  the  stoim  of 
opinion  raged  in  the  assembly,  Luther  had  friends  among  the  princes, 
and  they  stood  by  him;  but  when  it  seemed  that  he  was  likely  to  be 
condemned,  he  was  hurried  away  into  retirement  to  secure  his  safety. 
The  Diet  pronounced  his  condemnation. 

Note  7.  Luther's  German  Bible.  During  his  forced  retirement  in 
the  castle  of  the  Wartburg,  Luther  employed  himself  in  giving  to  the 
people  of  Germany  a  correct  translation  of  the  Bible  in  their  own 
tongue.  By  this  act  he  not  only  made  sure  of  the  permanency  of  the 
Reformation,  even  if  he  should  perish,  but  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  German  as  a  literary  language.  The  Bible  became  the 
weapon  of  the  German  Protestants,  and  in  this  respect  Germany  was 
imitated  by  all  Protestants.  The  Bible  took  the  place  of  the  Catholic 
church  as  an  authority  in  matters  of  religion.  Through  its  pages 
God  spoke  to  the  men  and  women  of  the  modern  age  in  the  words 
in  which  He  spoke  to  His  people  of  old.  It  echoed  to  the  voices  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets.  It  recorded  the  words  of  Jesus  Himself  to  the  people 
of  Galilee  and  Judea.  It  contained  a  statement  of  the  truth  that  it 
was  not  through  monastic  self-righteousness,  nor  through  the  sacra- 
ments of  an  established  church,  nor  through  the  ministrations  of  an 
ordained  clergy,  that  man  and  God  could  come  close  together,  but 
through  the  response  of  the  human  heart  to  the  call  of  God  through  the 
person  of  Jesus  Christ.  Through  religious  faith  would  come  the  new 
religious  life.  To  the  child  of  God  all  forms  of  sin  were  forbidden. 
Moral  reform  must  follow  spiritual  renewal,  and  thus  at  last  the  modern 
awakening  would  be  complete. 

Note  8.  The  Later  Reformation  in  Germany.  Protestantism  in 
Germany  had  its  experiences  of  storm  and  stress.  It  was  oppressed  by 
the  old  order  in  church  and  state.  Its  success  was  threatened  by  the 
radicals  who  were  not  satisfied  with  what  Luther  had  done.  Luther 
himself  passed  off  the  scene.  Many  parts  of  the  country  were  lighted 
with  the  fires  of  civil  war.  Not  a  few  of  the  Germans  clung  to  their 
old  faith,  and  others  returned  to  the  church  of  their  ancestors  after  a 


Eighteen         jj^^  ^  Saxon  Mouk  Set  Germany  on  Fire  93 

time.  But  the  Reformation  could  not  be  undone.  The  spirit  of  a 
new  age  Uved  in  the  monk  of  Wittenberg.  Germany,  and  Europe  too, 
could  never  be  the  same  again.  For  northern  Europe  the  shackles 
of  superstition  were  broken.  The  new  evangel  was  heard  in  Sweden 
and  in  Scandinavia,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  France,  and  in  the  British 
Isles,  and  steadily  it  has  made  its  way  abroad  until  it  has  borne  its 
message  to  the  farthest  corners  of  the  world. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  the  Preceding  Lesspns. 

1.  Who  were  the  Franciscan  friars? 

2.  Who  were  the  Waldensians,  and  how  did  they  differ  from  the 
Albigensians? 

3.  How  did  the  peasants  of  England  live? 

4.  How  did  they  practise  religion? 

5.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  new  town  life? 

6.  In  what  way  was  there  an  awakening? 

7.  What  city  may  be  called  the  home  of  the  Renaissance? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  was  the  temper  of  Germany  different  from  that  of  Italy? 


2.  What  was  the  feeling  of  the  different  classes? 

3.  What  were  indulgences? 

4.  Why  was  Luther  opposed  to  them? 

5.  In  what  ways  did  he  show  his  objections? 

'*  6.  What  was  the  real  core  of  Luther's  Protestantism? 


04  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  " 

7.  Describe  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 

8.  What  was  Luther's  relation  to  the  Bible? 

9.  Why  has  the  Bible  been  important  to  Protestants? 


10.  What  were  the  leading  countries  into  which  the  Reformation 
went? 


Reading  References, 
(i)  Jacobs:  Martin  Luther.  (2)  Walker:  Great  Men  of  the  Christian 
Church,  ch.  12.     (3)  Charles:  Chronicles  of  the  Schdnberg-Cotta  Family. 


Lesson  19.    GENEVA  IN  THE  DAYS  OF  CALVIN.    His  Opposition 

to  the  Libertines. 

Sources. — Calvin's  letters,  tracts,  commentaries,  and  city  ordinances;  Cal- 
vin's Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  the  text-book  of  Protestantism;  the 
Life  of  Calvin  by  Beza,  his  successor  in  Geneva. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson 
preparatory  to  questions  in  class. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  place  of  Calvin  in  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation;  (6)  the  difficulties  with  which  Calvin  was  beset  in 
Geneva;  (c)  the  importance  of  the  "Institutes";  {d)  the  new  place  of  democracy 
in  church  government;  (e)  the  interest  of  Calvin  in  social  welfare. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  class  discussion:  Which  is  the  better 
method  for  abolishing  such  vices  as  were  prevalent  in  Geneva:  prohibition  and 
rigid  suppression,  or  moral  education.?  Is  there  any  serious  lack  in  present  day 
education.? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(&)  Draw  a  map  of  central  Europe  to  show  the  location  of  Geneva,  Zurich, 
Strassburg,  Wittenberg,  Worms,  Rome,  (c)  Find  places  in  the  letters  of  Paul 
where  he  speaks  of  God's  grace  as  the  means  of  salvation  from  sin.  {d)  Place 
in  three  parallel  columns  the  principal  evils  in  the  city,  the  restrictions  made 
jjy  the  city  government,  and  Calvin's  provisions  for  social  welfare.  Underline 
in  each  coliuim  the  two  which  you  regard  as  most  important. 


Nineteen 


Geneva  in  the  Days  of  Calvin  95 


Note  1.  The  City  of  Geneva.  The  city  of  Geneva  lies  on  the  border 
between  France  and  the  mountain  land  of  the  Swiss.  From  the  blue 
lake  at  its  foot  pour  the  swift  waters  of  the  river  Rhone;  in  the  dis- 
tance sliines  the  white  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  Up  from  the  lake 
wind  the  narrow  streets  of  the  old  town,  massed  with  buildings  that 
almost  hide  the  cathedral,  where  the  second  great  prophet  of  the  Refor- 
mation had  his  pulpit,  and  from  which  there  went  forth  words  that 
stirred  Europe.  It  was  into  this  city  on  a  summer  day  in  the  year  1536 
that  John  Calvin  came  as  a  travelling  scholar,  and  in  this  city  he  re- 
mained to  make  it  famous  as  the  capital  city  of  the  Reformed  faith. 
When  Calvin  came  to  Geneva,  fourteen  years  had  passed  since  Luther 
defied  empire  and  church  in  the  Diet  of  Worms.  During  that  time 
the  new  faith  had  made  its  way  into  the  countries  bordering  Germany. 
It  had  been  especially  successful  in  Switzerland.  In  Zurich  under 
the  leadership  of  Zwingli  a  more  radical  revolt  from  Rome  had  taken 
place.  The  cities  of  Berne  and  Basle  had  gone  over  to  Protestantism, 
and  before  Calvin  arrived  Geneva  had  declared  its  religious  and  political 
independence  from  the  prince-bishop  who  had  been  lord  of  the  city. 
But  Switzerland  and  the  Protestant  countries  generally  needed  a  leader 
who  should  conserve  the  progress  that  Luther  had  made,  and  who 
should  organize  and  instruct  the  followers  of  the  Reformed  faith. 
That  man  was  John  Calvin. 

Note  2.  How  Calvin  Became  the  Master  in  Geneva.  Calvin  was  a 
Frenchman,  who  had  been  born  in  1509,  had  been  well  educated,  and 
had  caught  the  spirit  of  the  German  Reformation.  Protestants  were 
persecuted  in  France,  and  Calvin  had  determined  to  seek  an  asylum 
on  the  Continent,  and  was  on  his  way  to  Strassburg,  a  Protestant 
center  of  western  Germany,  when  he  came  to  Geneva  intending  to  stay 
over  one  night,  and  then  to  proceed  elsewhere  for  further  study.  His 
presence  was  made  known  to  William  Farel,  a  reforming  evangelist 
then  living  in  Geneva,  and  it  was  through  him  that  Calvin  received 
his  call  to  remain  in  the  city  and  take  the  lead  in  certain  measures 
of  reform.  Calvin  yielded  reluctantly,  and  began  his  task  by  lecturing 
on  theology  in  the  church  of  Saint  Pierre.  He  urged  a  simpler  gospel 
than  that  of  the  Catholic  church  or  of  Luther.  He  provided  a  con- 
fession of  faith  and  a  catechism.  He  approved  the  stern  discipline 
that  had  been  introduced  by  the  city  council  for  loose  living.  It  hap- 
pened that  there  were  many  in  Geneva  who  had  been  accustomed  to  a 
free  and  easy  life.  They  prized  their  liberty,  and  resented  the  restric- 
tions insisted  upon  by  Calvin  and  the  council.  One  of  the  effects  of 
the  revolt  from  the  Catholic  church  was  to  intoxicate  people  with  the 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


idea  of  liberty,  and  liberty  was  often  carried  to  license.  It  was  a 
difficult  task  for  the  reformers  to  prevent  this,  and  Calvin  found  the 
opposition  of  the  "  Libertines  "  in  Geneva  so  strong  that  he  lost  liis 
grip  upon  the  city  and  was  banished  by  his  enemies.  He  spent  three 
years  in  Strassburg,  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  he  was  recalled  by  the 
city  that  could  not  get  along  without  him,  and  he  established  himself 
firmly  in  his  old  capital. 

Note  3.  How  Calvin  Became  the  Leader  of  the  Reformed  Church. 
Calvin  became  the  most  influential  leader  of  Protestantism  through 
his  text-book  of  theology  and  tlu-ough  his  organization  of  the  Genevan 
church.  Before  he  had  become  widely  known  tliis  young  French 
scholar  had  brooded  upon  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  and  had 
put  form  to  his  beliefs  in  a  manuscript  that  he  published  in  the  Swiss 
city  of  Basle  four  months  before  he  came  to  Geneva.  The  new  book 
bore  the  title  of  the  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion.  It  met  a  great 
need.  Thus  far  there  had  been  no  definite  and  full  statement  of  the 
faith  of  the  Reformation.  No  one  had  attempted  a  system  of  thought 
to  set  over  against  the  theology  of  the  Catholic  church.  There  was 
need  for  a  definition  of  the  new  faith,  just  as  there  had  been  when 
Christianity  was  introduced  to  the  Greek  world  of  the  second  century. 
Calvin  with  his  Institutes  supplied  the  text-book  of  the  Reformation. 

In  the  matter  of  organization  Calvin's  contribution  was  no  less 
important.  The  Catholic  theory  had  been  that  the  church,  including 
all  citizens,  was  under  the  government  of  the  clergy,  and  that  the 
bishops  of  the  dioceses  were  the  superior  rulers  with  the  pope  as  their 
chief.  Luther  had  thrown  over  the  pope  with  the  Catholic  system 
of  faith,  but  he  had  not  changed  much  the  method  of  church  govern- 
ment. In  his  church  there  were  still  overseers,  though  they  might  be 
called  superintendents  instead  of  bishops,  and  the  rule  was  still  in 
the  hands  of  the  clergy.  Calvin  changed  all  that.  The  members  of  his 
church  were  those  who  professed  the  Reformed  faith.  The  officers  of 
the  church  were  the  minister,  the  teacher,  the  elders  and  the  deacons. 
They  were  called  by  God  and  approved  by  the  people.  Except  the 
deacons,  these  officers  constituted  a  consistory,  which  was  the  govern- 
ing board  of  the  church,  and  which  was  also  the  guardian  of  faith  and 
morals.  This  church  was  not  subject  to  the  state,  as  Lutheranism 
became,  but  was  the  ally  of  the  state,  and  the  theory  was,  like  that  of 
Catholicism,  that  the  state  should  protect  and  reinforce  the  church. 

Note  4.  Calvin's  Theories.  The  theory  of  the  French  reformer 
was  that  God  had  called  him  to  reform  Geneva.  His  ainr  was  to  build  a 
commonwealth  based  on  the  idea  of  the  sovereignty  of  God,  and  receiv- 


Nineteen 


Geneva  in  the  Days  of  Calvin  97 


ing  the  word  of  God  as  its  constitutional  authority.  God  demanded 
self-restraint  and  moral  living,  and  it  was  Calvin's  duty  to  see  that 
God  was  obeyed.  God's  sovereignty  was  absolute.  He  had  elected 
Calvin  to  be  lord  of  Geneva  as  His  viceroy.  God  had  elected  a  few 
out  of  the  city  to  be  saved  from  the  sin  in  which  the  mass  of  men  were 
weltering.  It  was  Calvin's  task  to  see  that  they  were  not  drawn  into 
temptation  and  sin  by  the  evil  around  them.  The  Bible  was  the 
source  of  his  faith  and  of  the  authority  that  he  possessed.  It  was 
natural  that  the  Bible  should  become  the  authority  of  a  church  which 
rejected  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  So  the  common- 
wealth of  Geneva  was  built  on  the  two  corner-stones  of  the  sovereignty 
of  God  and  of  the  Bible,  and  Calvinism  fashioned  its  theology  on  the 
basis  of  a  sovereign  God  choosing  whom  he  would  to  be  saved  from  a 
sinful  world  and  to  citizenship  in  the  invisible  city  of  God. 

Note  6.  Calvin's  Rule.  With  liis  principles  as  a  basis  Calvin 
carried  through  his  reforms  in  spite  of  the  Libertines.  The  city  was 
ruled  nominally  by  several  councils  and  assemblies,  and  Calvin  was 
never  able  to  disregard  them,  though  he  was  the  most  powerful  man 
in  the  city.  In  most  matters  they  agreed  heartily.  Calvin's  system 
of  church  government  was  set  in  order.  Rigid  rules  of  discipline 
forbade  frivolous  as  well  as  immoral  conduct,  and  provided  for  a 
careful  observance  of  Sunday.  Drinking  and  gambhng  were  severely 
punished;  jests  at  the  expense  of  religion  incurred  banishment.  Pro- 
fanity and  witchcraft  were  punishable  by  death.  The  lowly  and  high- 
born alike  were  subject  to  the  same  law,  and  were  visited  with  the 
same  punishment.  The  church  did  not  itself  impose  the  penalty. 
Its  officers  reproved  and  rebuked  offenders,  and  in  aggravated  cases 
cut  them  off  from  the  church;  the  city  government  could  be  depended 
upon  to  do  whatever  else  was  necessary. 

Note  6.  Servetus  and  the  Libertines.  It  was  not  without  strong 
opposition  that  Cal  vin  carried  out  his  strict  policy.  The  Libertines  were 
his  constant  enemies.  Their  leader,  Gruet,  was  seized,  condemned 
and  beheaded  for  standing  in  the  way  of  the  municipal  policy.  Ser- 
vetus, a  brilliant  Spanish  physician,  rashly  antagonised  Calvin  and  the 
city  authorities,  and  his  case  was  made  a  test  of  strength  between  the 
Calvinists  and  the  Libertines.  It  was  aggravated  by  the  pecuHar  heresy 
of  Servetus,  in  which  he  announced  his  disbelief  in  the  Trinity.  This  was 
considered  an  unpardonable  offence,  and  as  heretic  and  Libertine  he  was 
punished  with  the  extreme  penalty  of  being  burned  at  the  stake.  Two 
years  later  Calvin's  friends  gained  completely  the  control  of  affairs  in 
the  city,  and  the  reformation  to  which  Calvin  had  considered  himself 
called  was  complete.    The  reformer  died  in  1564. 


98  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Note  7.  The  Record  of  Calvin  and  the  Influence  of  Calvinism. 
Calvinism  stands  for  a  definite  program  and  for  definite  achievement. 
It  represented  law  and  order  in  Geneva,  and  it  lifted  the  life  of  the  city 
to  a  high  moral  plane.  It  gave  an  impulse  to  popular  government, 
fostered  by  the  church  organization,  and  by  the  belief  in  the  equality 
of  all  men  before  a  holy  and  sovereign  God.  It  stood  for  a  high  type 
of  education.  Cahin  brought  teachers  to  the  city,  established  a  graded 
system  of  instruction,  and  founded  the  University  of  Geneva  in  1559. 
He  instituted  a  program  of  social  welfare.  Calvin  had  at  heart  the 
social  prosperity  of  Geneva.  He  exercised  care  for  the  sick  poor,  and 
provided  hospitals  and  asylums.  He  investigated  the  sanitation  of  the 
city.  He  emphasized  the  importance  of  labor,  and  concerned  himself 
with  the  establishment  of  industries  in  Geneva.  He  made  the  home  the 
corner-stone  of  society. 

It  was  these  excellences  of  faith  and  organization  and  social  welfare 
that  commended  Calvinism  to  other  lands.  Calvinism  became  the 
Reformed  faith  of  France  and  the  Netherlands,  and  replaced  Lutheran- 
ism  in  western  Germany.  It  won  Scotland  for  the  Reformation, 
and  gave  birth  to  Puritanism  in  England.  It  created  New  England, 
and  impressed  the  Puritan  stamp  upon  the  American  people.  It  has 
sent  out  evangelical  missionaries  into  all  parts  of  the  world.  Luther 
had  precipitated  the  Reformation;  Calvin  made  it  permanent  and 
widely  extended. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  In  what  respects  was  Germany  ready  for  Luther.'^ 

2.  Why  is  it  proper  to  speak  of  him  as  the  "  hero  of  the  Reforma- 
tion ".? 

3.  What  was  the  fundamental  principle  of  German  Protestantism.? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  was  the  religious  situation  in  Europe  when  Calvin  went  to 
Geneva? 


2.  What  conditions  did  Calvin  find  in  the  city,  and  how  did  he 
meet  them? 


3.  What  book  did  Calvin  publish,  and  why  was  it  important? 


Nineteen  Geneva  in  the  Days  of  Calvin 

4.  How  did  Calvin  organize  the  Reformed  church  in  Geneva? 


5.  Compare  the  relation  of  the  Lutheran  church  to  the  German  state, 
and  the  relation  of  the  Calvinistic  church  to  the  Genevan  state. 


6.  What  were  the  basic  principles  of  Calvinism? 

7.  Describe  Calvin's  rule  in  Geneva. 

8.  Who  was  Servetus? 

9.  How  did  Calvin  promote  the  social  welfare  of  the  people? 

10.  How  widely  did  Calvinism  spread? 


Reading  References. 

{!)  Robinson:  History  of  Western  Europe.  (2)  Walker:  Great  Men 
of  the  Christian  Church,  ch.  13.  {3)  Stephenson:  John  Calvin:  the 
Statesman.  {Jj)  W^alker:  John  Calvin.  (5)  Beza:  Life  of  Calvin. 
(6)  Calvin:  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion.  (7)  SchaS:  History  of 
the  Christian  Church,  VII,  ch.  8.  (S)  Cambridge  Modern  History,  II, 
ch.  11. 


100  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Lesson    20.    THE    JVLASSACRE    OF    SAINT    BARTHOLOMEW. 

Protestantism  in  France  before  and  after. 

Sources. — Beza's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Reformed  churches  in  the 
Kingdom  of  France;  Calvin's  letters;  correspondence  of  the  reformers;  Paris 
city  registers;  edicts,  memoirs,  journals  and  letters;  records  of  the  Venetian 
ambassador. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding 
lesson.,  and  be  ready  for  questions  on  it. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the 
place  of  Calvin  in  the  French  Reformation;  (6)  the  political  element  that  was 
present  as  well  as  the  religious;  (c)  the  spirit  of  Catholics  and  Protestants 
toward  each  other,  revealed  in  the  wars  and  in  the  massacre;  (d)  the  power  of  a 
king  to  affect  the  happiness  of  thousands  by  a  single  edict. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  questions  for  discussion:  ^Vhat  was  the  proper 
policy  for  Henry  IV  to  follow  with  reference  to  religion  when  he  became  king 
of  France?     What  is  the  correct  course  for  a  ruler  to  follow  to-day? 

4.  Prepare  note-book  work  as  follows:  (a)  See  that  the  last  summary  is  prop- 
erly written  out  (6)  Write  a  character  sketch  of  Catherine  de  Medici,  (c) 
Make  a  list  of  the  principal  persons  connected  with  this  period  of  French  his- 
tory, and  after  each  name  mention  his  position  in  the  realm,  his  religion,  and 
his  character  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  determine  them. 

Note  1.  The  French  Reformation.  When  Calvin  went  to  Geneva, 
he  was  a  refugee  from  France.  He  had  just  published  in  the  preface  to 
his  histitutes  an  appeal  to  King  Francis  I  that  he  would  treat  kindly 
and  justly  the  adherents  of  the  Reformed  faith.  The  Reformation  had 
come  to  France  independently  of  Calvin  or  Luther.  The  study  of  the 
Bible  in  the  University  of  Paris  had  led  the  scholar,  Jacques  Lefevre, 
and  others  to  evangelical  ideas  just  as  similar  study  in  the  University 
of  Wittenberg  had  produced  the  leader  of  the  German  Reformation. 
In  Germany  the  new  thought  appealed  particularly  to  the  people;  in 
France  it  attracted  the  prosperous  burghers  of  the  cities  and  many  of 
the  nobility.  Margaret,  the  sister  of  the  king,  became  a  Protestant. 
Even  the  king  was  friendly  at  first,  but  he  became  a  fierce  persecutor. 

The  French  Reformation  took  on  a  different  character  from  the  Ger- 
man, because  of  the  nobility  who  were  interested  in  it.  Some  of  them, 
including  the  princes  of  Conde,  who  were  in  the  probable  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne,  cared  more  for  politics  than  for  religion,  and  used 
their  Protestantism  to  promote  their  political  ambitions.  The  wars 
that  followed  are,  therefore,  wars  of  ambition  fully  as  much  as  wars  of 
religion.  The  leader  of  the  Catholic  party  was  the  duke  of  Guise;  the 
leader  of  the  Huguenots  was  Admiral  Coligny. 

Note  2.  The  Influence  of  Calvin.  Though  Calvin  remained  at 
Geneva,  he  had  a  part  in  the  progress  of  French  Protestantism.  He 
was  able  to  influence  the  Huguenots,  as  the  French  Protestants  were 


Twenty  j,f^^  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  101 

called,  in  several  different  ways.  He  carried  on  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence. He  received  many  fugitives  at  Geneva,  instructed  them  in 
his  own  ideas,  and  sent  them  back  to  spread  those  ideas  through  France. 
His  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion  served  to  indoctrinate  the  Hugue- 
nots. It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  both  the  doctrine  and  the  organi- 
zation of  the  French  Protestant  church  were  patterned  after  Geneva. 
Indeed  in  France  the  presbyterian  form  of  church  organization  was 
carried  out  more  fully  than  had  been  possible  in  Geneva.  Then  after 
Calvin's  death  we  find  the  Genevan  influence  continuing  through  Beza, 
who  was  Calvin's  successor  in  the  Swiss  city,  and  who  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Reformation  in  France. 

Note  3.    Character  of  the  Strife  Between  the  Religious  Parties. 

The  story  of  the  long  contest  for  supremacy  in  France  reflects  no  glory 
on  the  French  character.  It  is  a  tiresome,  sickening  narrative  of 
unscrupulous  scheming,  of  cold-blooded  murder,  and  of  long  continued 
warfare.  The  kings  of  the  nation  were  Catholic  in  their  sympathies, 
and  often  persecuted  the  Huguenots  as  relentlessly  as  the  old  Roman 
emperors  had  punished  the  Christians  of  olden  time.  The  Italian 
queen  mother  of  several  of  the  young  kings,  Catherine  de  Medici, 
seems  to  have  had  no  religious  convictions  strong  enough  to  prevent 
her  froni  aiding  whichever  party  would  be  most  useful  to  her,  and  she 
used  the  methods  of  modern  Italian  conspirators  in  getting  rid  of  her 
enemies.     The  duke  of  Guise  was  the  influential  adviser  of  the  king. 

Under  circumstances  such  as  these  it  is  easy  to  understand  the 
events  that  succeeded  one  another.  The  government  was  harsh  to  the 
Protestants,  and  they  in  turn  plotted  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  the 
Guises.  When  this  was  found  out  the  punishment  was  severe,  hundreds 
being  executed  in  a  variety  of  ways  for  the. amusement  of  the  ladies  of 
the  court.  To  preserve  the  balance  of  power  Catherine  granted  privi- 
leges to  the  Protestants,  but  the  duke  of  Guise  disregarded  the  grant, 
and  murdered  a  company  of  Protestants  worshipping  in  a  barn.  Then 
war  broke  out,  and  was  carried  on  with  every  variety  of  mercilessness 
and  cruelty.  At  last  Catherine  tried  to  patch  up  a  peace  by  bringing 
about  a  marriage  alliance  between  the  families  of  princes  on  both  sides, 
and  thousands  of  Catholics  and  Protestants  poured  into  Paris  to  cele- 
brate the  arrival  of  peace.  It  was  then  that  the  Catholic  party  carried 
out  its  master  stroke  of  policy  in  the  massacre  of  thousands  of  Protes- 
tant citizens  on  the  eve  of  Saint  Bartholomew's  Day  (August  24,  1572). 

Note  4.  The  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew.  In  the  scheming 
of  parlies  it  had  seemed  necessary  to  get  rid  of  Admiral  Coligny,  the 
Protestant  leader  who  was  winning  the  king  away  from  the  Guises. 


102  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


An  attempt  had  been  made  to  assassinate  him,  and  when  that  failed 
and  his  friends  promised  to  retahate,  a  plot  was  hatched  to  wipe  out 
the  Huguenots  who  were  in  the  city  at  the  wedding.  The  king's  con- 
sent was  secured  through  the  queen  mother.  Shortly  after  midnight  at 
the  tolling  of  a  bell  the  bloody  work  began.  Assassins  burst  into  the 
room  of  Coligny,  who,  though  surprised,  faced  them  calmly  and  died 
bravely.  His  body  was  thrown  to  the  street  where  the  duke  of  Guise 
was  waiting  for  the  completion  of  the  deed.  In  the  royal  palace  of  the 
Louvre  the  Protestant  princes  were  arrested,  and  noblemen  put  to  the 
sword.  Then  the  murderers  divided  into  groups.  All  through  the  city 
they  pursued  their  deadly  work  in  the  darkness,  cutting  down  fugitives 
in  the  streets,  and  pursuing  others  into  the  houses.  The  Latin  quarter 
was  stained  with  the  blood  of  Huguenot  gentlemen,  as  were  the  stair- 
ways of  the  Louvre.  No  place  was  sacred,  no  spot  secure,  and  all 
because  Frenchmen  could  not  agree  in  interpreting  the  religion  of  the 
Christ  of  peace  whom  all  professed  to  honor  and  worship.  The  work 
that  was  begun  in  the  capital  extended  into  the  towns  until  thousands 
had  fallen  victims  to  religious  hate.  Wlien  the  pope  of  Rome  received 
the  news  he  ordered  a  Te  Deum  of  praise  to  be  sung,  and  when  Philip  of 
Spain  heard  of  it,  he  is  said  to  have  laughed  aloud  for  the  first  time  in 
his  life. 

Note  5.  The  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  massacre  of  so  many  Hugue- 
nots in  France  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  but 
the  struggle  went  on.  Religious  wars  were  characteristic  of  the  time. 
Philip  of  Spain  was  the  champion  of  the  Catholics  in  Europe;  Eliza- 
beth of  England  was  a  leader  among  the  Protestants.  The  Dutch  were 
fighting  in  the  Netherlands  for  their  independence  from  Spain,  and  they 
were  expecting  help  from  the  French  Huguenots,  when  they  received 
the  discouraging  news  of  the  massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew's  Day. 
Another  half  century  was  to  pass  before  the  period  of  religious  wars 
should  come  to  an  end,  and  political  interests  become  most  prominent. 

In  1589  a  Protestant  prince  became  King  Henry  IV  of  France,  and 
four  years  later  he  adopted  the  Catholic  faith  in  order  to  make  sure 
of  his  crown  and  to  bring  peace  to  his  distressed  country.  He  is  re- 
ported to  have  said  that  Paris  was  well  worth  a  mass.  In  1598  he 
granted  toleration  to  the  Protestants  to  hold  their  faith  privately,  and 
to  enjoy  rights  of  public  worship  in  certain  specified  towns.  They 
were  admitted  to  schools  and  public  offices  on  a  level  with  Catholics. 
Besides  these  benefits  a  few  places  were  assigned  to  them,  especially  as 
strongholds  for  refuge  and  defense  if  difficulty  should  arise  again. 
This  plan  worked  badly,  for  it  gave  the  Huguenots  the  nucleus  of 
political  power,  and  led  to  trouble  later  on. 


Tweniy  rpj^^  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  lOS 

Note  6.  The  Revocation  of  the  Edict.  After  a  time  the  fortified 
towns  were  taken  away  from  the  Huguenots,  who  were  planning  a 
Protestant  state  of  France.  At  last  in  1685,  after  nearly  a  century  of 
toleration,  Louis  XIV  revoked  the  religious  freedom  that  had  been 
granted,  and  another  era  of  persecution  began.  This  prohibition  of 
Protestantism  closed  all  their  churches  and  outlawed  all  the  individuals 
who  belonged  among  the  Huguenots.  The  Protestant  ministers  were 
driven  out  of  the  country,  but  the  people  were  forbidden  to  leave  on 
penalty  of  being  sent  to  the  galleys  as  slaves  for  life.  But  the  outlawed 
people  preferred  to  take  the  risks  of  emigration  rather  than  to  remain 
under  such  conditions,  and  thousands  managed  to  escape  from  the 
country.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  people 
thus  withdrew  from  their  intolerant  fatherland.  Some  of  them  found 
their  way  to  England,  some  to  Holland,  and  some  to  Germany,  and 
many  even  settled  among  the  English  colonies  in  America. 

Note  7.  The  Results  of  the  Migration.  The  results  of  the  migra- 
tion were  peculiarly  unfortunate  for  France.  The  Huguenots  were  of 
good  stock.  They  belonged  to  that  class  of  the  people  that  was  most 
intelligent  and  industrious,  and  in  outlawing  them  Louis  XIV  was 
depriving  his  kingdom  of  its  most  valuable  citizens.  When  they  went 
out  they  took  with  them  their  industries,  and  helped  to  enrich  the  coun- 
tries where  they  settled.  Those  who  remained  suffered  the  indignities 
of  their  lot,  and  Protestantism  in  France  has  never  been  able  to  recover 
from  such  blows  as  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  and  the  Revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  decline  of  French  fortunes  after 
the  death  of  Louis  XIV  may  be  traced  in  a  measure  to  his  unfortunate 
policy  of  intolerance. 

Note  8.  What  Intolerance  Means.  Religious  intolerance  has  never 
in  the  end  helped  a  nation.  The  Roman  empire  did  not  save  itself  or 
its  pagan  emperor  cult  by  persecuting  Cliristianity.  The  Roman 
Catholic  nations  never  gained  strength  by  punishing  Protestants. 
They  might  succeed  in  destroying  Protestantism  in  a  certain  country, 
but  such  extermination  never  brought  gain  to  the  intolerant  land. 
The  whole  period  of  religious  wars  marks  a  period  of  permanent  pros- 
perity in  England  and  the  Netherlands,  but  no  such  gain  came  to  France 
and  Spain.  In  the  next  lesson  appears  the  last  great  undertaking  of 
the  Catholic  church  to  check  the  growing  Protestantism — ^that  of  the 
Jesuits. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  was  the  great  leader  of  the  Swiss  Reformation? 

2,  What  were  some  of  his  interests  in  Geneva? 


104  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


3.  What  text-book  of  Reformation  doctrine  did  he  publish? 

4.  In  what  countries  did  Calvinism  become  the  prevailing  type  of 
religion? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  the  Reformation  start  in  France?      '^^'^  ^ 


2.  Explain  how  Calvin  had  a  part  in  it. 


3.  Describe  the  character  of  the  struggle  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants. 


4.  Tell  the  story  of  Saint  Bartholomew's  Day. 

5.  What  privileges  were  granted  by  Henry  IV  to  Protestants? 

6.  What  do  you  think  of  Henry  IV  as  a  man  and  a  king? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes? 

8.  What  was  the  effect  upon  France? 


9.  What  became  of  thousands  of  French  Huguenots? 


10.  How  does  intolerance  usually  affect  a  nation? 


Twenty-one      y^^  Standing  Army  of  the  Catholic  Church  105 

Reading  References. 
(1)  Lindsay:  History  of  the  Reformation,  II,  cli.  4.     (^)  Myers:  TJie 
Modern  Age,  ch.  5.     (s)  White:  The  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew. 


Lesson    21.    THE    STANDING    ARMY    OF    THE    CATHOLIC 
CHURCH.    Loyola  and  the  Jesuits. 

Sources. — The  Historical  Relations  of  the  Jesuits;  contemporary  lives  of 
Loyola;  letters  of  individual  Jesuits;  decrees  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  its 
rules. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  questions  on  the  preceding 
lesson  preparatory  to  class  review. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  giving  special  attention  to  the  follow- 
ing points:  (a)  the  personal  experiences  of  Loyola;  (b)  the  purpose  of  the  new 
order;  (c)  methods  for  Catholic  recovery;  (d)  the  missionary  enterprises  Ea.st 
and  West;  (e)  the  weakness  of  Jesuitism. 

3.  Think  over  for  class  discussion  the  following  question:  Does  a  noble  pur- 
pose make  right  the  use  of  questionable  means  in  carrying  out  that  purpose.? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson  is 
written  out  in  full.  (6)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  religious  orders  in  the 
Catholic  church,  and  state  briefly  the  reason  for  their  existence,  and  their 
achievements,  (c)  Write  a  sketch  of  Father  Marquette  in  not  more  than  five 
hundi'ed  words. 

Note  1.  A  Soldier  of  Jesus.  Pampekma  was  a  border  fortress  of 
northern  Spain,  in  a  pro\ince  kept  by  a  family  of  Spanish  nobles  proud 
of  their  Gothic  descent.  One  day  in  15*21  the  garrison  was  attacked 
by  an  overwhelming  French  force,  and  after  a  gallant  defense  was 
taken.  The  hero  of  the  defense  was  Ignatius  Loyola,  an  ambitious 
soldier  of  the  family  of  nobles  mentioned.  He  was  so  badly  wounded 
that  his  dream  of  fame  as  a  soldier  was  rudely  shattered.  But  fame 
was  too  dear  a  dream  to  be  easily  surrendered,  and  he  resolved  to 
win  fame  as  a  saint.  If  he  could  not  be  a  soldier  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
he  might  be  a  soldier  of  the  King  of  heaven.  He  felt  far  away  from 
God,  but  he  vowed  that  he  would  change  his  manner  of  life,  and  by 
self-denial  would  win  favor  from  heaven.  In  a  Dominican  monastery 
he  went  through  a  soul  struggle  like  that  of  Luther  at  Erfurt,  and  in 
complete  self-surrender  found  peace.  But  the  Spanish  nature  was 
different  from  the  German.  Luther's  experience  made  him  the  leader  of 
the  German  Reformation;  Loyola's  struggle  only  made  him  more  intense 
in  his  desire  to  know  the  mysteries  of  religion.  The  religious  Spaniard 
easily  turned  to  mysticism,  and  by  self-examination  and  analysis  he 
tried  to  probe  the  depths  of  the  spiritual  nature. 


106  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^^°^ 

Note  2.  Loyola  and  his  Associates.  Loyola  worked  out  a  set  of 
religious  exercises  that  he  was  willing  to  guarantee  would  sanctify  the 
soul,  and  he  resolved  to  introduce  these  to  others  who  like  himself  were 
disposed  to  devote  themselves  to  a  religious  life.  He  was  too  inde- 
pendent to  accept  readily  the  restraints  of  one  of  the  monastic  orders, 
but  he  was  religiously  minded.  After  an  unsuccessful  missionary  tour 
as  far  as  Jerusalem,  he  settled  down  to  study  at  Paris,  and  to  perfect 
himself  and  his  exercises.  He  carefully  observed  his  companions  and 
in  his  own  mind  selected  several  that  he  hoped  he  might  attract  to  the 
same  purpose  that  animated  him.  By  the  influence  of  his  person- 
ality he  was  able  to  form  a  group  of  a  few  enthusiasts  on  the  basis  of 
his  spiritual  exercises,  associated  together  to  serve  the  old  church  that 
was  buffeted  by  revolution  in  many  lands.  The  group  of  associates 
did  not  organize  fully  at  once,  but  after  trying  themselves  for  a  time, 
they  appealed  to  the  pope  for  permission  to  found  a  new  order,  and  in 
1540  they  received  his  sanction. 

Note  3.  The  Society  of  Jesus.  This  new  order  took  final  shape  at 
Rome.  Loyola  was  made  its  chief,  and  his  companions  would  have 
called  it  by  his  name,  but  he  would  accept  no  other  name  for  it  than 
that  of  Jesus,  and  so  it  became  the  Society  of  Jesus,  popularly  termed 
the  Jesuit  order.  The  prime  purpose  of  the  order  was  the  defense  of 
the  Catholic  church.  The  same  military  spirit  of  loyalty  which  made 
Ignatius  Loyola  defend  the  Pampeluna  fortress  to  the  last  extremity 
made  him  desire  to  found  his  new  order  on  the  military  principle  of 
loyalty  to  the  church.  This  explains  how  the  Jesuits  were  different 
from  other  Catholic  orders.  Instead  of  swarming  into  monasteries 
these  Catholic  knights  organized  themselves  under  a  general  as  the 
superior  of  the  order  and  bound  themselves  to  unquestioning  obedience 
to  him  and  to  the  pope.  Their  individual  lives  were  of  no  consequence 
if  the  interests  of  the  church  demanded  a  sacrifice.  Their  personal 
affairs  did  not  weigh  with  them  for  a  moment.  Even  moral  standards 
must  fall,  and  they  must  defy  the  voice  of  conscience,  if  their  leaders 
spoke  otherwise.  Of  such  stuff  was  made  the  standing  army  of  the 
Catholic  church. 

Note  4.  The  Jesuits  as  Defenders  of  the  Faith.  When  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits  was  founded,  the  foundations  of  Catholicism  seemed  fast 
crumbling  in  many  a  country  of  Europe.  Not  only  England  and 
Germany  had  broken  away  from  the  papacy  and  the  Swiss  cities  learned 
the  meaning  of  religious  as  well  as  political  independence,  but  even  the 
most  Catholic  countries,  like  Spain  and  France  and  Italy  and  the  states 
of  southern  Germany,  seemed  likely  to  follow  the  Protestant  pioneers 


Twenty-one      j^  Standing  Army  of  the  Catholic  Church  107 

and  give  the  death  blow  to  the  church  that  had  ruled  the  mind  of 
Europe  for  centuries.  Then  it  was  that  the  picked  men  who  had  been 
won  to  the  Jesuits  began  to  bring  about  a  reaction.  They  made  their 
way  into  the  various  countries  and  won  back  prominent  individuals  to 
the  church.  They  were  well  educated,  and  soon  became  teachers  in 
the  schools,  where  they  used  their  influence  to  make  an  impression  on 
the  young  people.  They  worked  their  way  into  favor  with  the  princes, 
and  by  shrewd  diplomacy  were  able  to  dhect  affairs  of  state.  They 
became  father  confessors  of  ladies  of  wealth  and  position,  and  so  in- 
directly became  a  power  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  plans  of  the  church. 
In  this  way  the  wavering  German  states  were  held  for  the  old  church, 
and  many  districts  that  seemed  altogether  lost  were  recovered. 

Note  5.  Jesuit  Missionaries  in  Asia.  The  standing  army  of  the 
pope  was  used  elsewhere  than  on  the  battlefields  with  Protestantism  in 
Europe.  Without  a  moment's  hesitation  individual  Jesuits  went  as 
outposts  of  Christianity  to  America  and  the  Far  East.  In  the  East 
they  were  under  the  protection  of  the  king  of  Portugal;  in  the  West 
they  were  in  French  and  Spanish  territory,  but  they  trusted  in  the 
power  of  God  to  keep  them,  and  gloried  in  the  opportunity  to  toil  and 
suffer.  The  story  of  the  foreign  missionary  enterprise  of  the  Jesuits 
is  very  romantic.  Francis  Xavier  was  one  of  the  original  company 
of  Loyola  in  France.  He  was  sent  as  missionary  to  Asia.  He  located 
first  in  India  only  two  years  after  the  pope  had  sanctioned  the  Jesuit 
organization.  He  had  not  sufficient  patience  to  learn  the  language  of 
the  people  among  whom  he  had  come,  so  that  his  influence  was  limited, 
but  he  gained  large  numbers  of  the  natives  to  a  nominal  adherence 
to  Christianity,  and  influenced  resident  Europeans  for  good.  From 
India  he  went  to  Japan,  where  he  gained  entrance  for  Christianity  in 
a  similar  manner.  Then  he  started  for  China,  but  died  on  the -way. 
He  was  followed  by  other  Jesuits,  who  extended  the  work  of  the  pioneer, 
but  resorted  to  questionable  means  to  accomplish  their  ends.  These 
Catholic  enterprises  in  Asia  may  not  seem  to  be  very  thorough,  but 
Catholic  Christianity  survived  until  Japan  and  China  were  opened 
again  to  foreign  influence  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Note  6.  Among  the  American  Indians.  The  opening  of  the  New 
World  to  exploration  and  settlement  gave  opportunity  for  missionary 
work  among  the  American  Indians.  The  task  was  undertaken  by 
different  orders.  The  Franciscans  penetrated  that  part  of  North 
America  which  belonged  to  Spain,  and  in  1535  boasted  that  they  had 
converted  nearly  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  the  natives.  The  Jesuits 
located  in  Brazil  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  gained 


108  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^^°" 

the  friendship  of  the  Indians.  They  made  their  way  into  Paraguay, 
where  early  in  the  seventeenth  century  they  estabhshed  an  independent 
paternal  state.  They  used  the  natives  as  serfs  on  the  land  that  they 
had  taken  as  their  possession,  but  they  brought  to  them  the  Christian 
religion,  and  established  greater  prosperity  for  the  people  than  they 
had  otherwise  enjoyed. 

In  French  Canada  and  in  the  Mississippi  region  such  bold  pioneers 
as  Father  Marquette  explored  land  and  watercourses  with  the  ardor 
of  Livingstone  in  Africa.  They  penetrated  among  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  interior,  and  over  and  over  again  gave  up  their  lives  to  the  blood- 
thirsty Indian  tribes.  Pushing  up  river  and  creek  in  an  Indian  canoe, 
they  landed  wherever  they  could  get  a  hearing,  planted  the  cross  as 
the  symbol  of  their  faith,  and  told  the  savages  the  story  of  Jesus.  This 
chapter  in  missionary  history  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  annals  of 
Christian  foreign  enterprise.  The  Jesuit  fathers  of  North  America  in 
their  singleness  of  purpose  and  their  brave  constancy  belong  among 
the  heroes  of  the  faith. 

Note  7.  Why  Jesuits  have  a  Bad  Name  in  History.  In  spite  of 
such  devotion  as  was  shown  by  these  soldiers  of  the  church  they  were 
feared  and  hated  by  many  Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants.  Even- 
tually they  were  driven  out  of  nearly  every  country  of  Europe,  and  the 
order  was  abolished  by  the  pope  in  1773,  but  it  was  reinstated  in  1814 
and  recovered  its  former  position.  Rival  orders,  like  the  Franciscans, 
were  jealous  of  its  power,  and  kings  disliked  the  Jesuits  because  their 
interests  were  often  hostile  to  the  interests  of  the  state  where  they  were 
located.  But  the  principal  evil  of  the  Jesuits  was  their  unscrupulous- 
ness.  The  principle  of  unquestioning  obedience  with  which  they 
started  produced  the  fruit  of  dishonesty.  No  one  trusted  a  Jesuit  in 
dealing  with  him.  Vast  amounts  of  property  were  heaped  up  by  a 
system  of  business  ethics  that  would  compare  favorably  with  the 
system  that  has  been  condemned  ty  public  opinion  in  recent  years. 
Moral  distinctions  were  lost  in  the  mind  of  the  Jesuit  who  resigned  all 
his  individuality,  and  his  moral  influence  was  dangerous  and  deadly. 
For  these  reasons  the  reputation  of  the  order  has  suffered  justly.  Yet 
the  student  of  Christian  history  cannot  help  admiring  the  principle  of 
loyalty  that  animated  the  Jesuits,  as  he  delights  in  the  noble  principles  of 
Francis  of  Assisi,  and  lamenting  that  the  order  has  not  maintained 
the  high  purpose  of  its  founder.  The  career  of  the  Jesuits  makes  plain 
the  truth  that  no  organization,  religious  or  otherwise,  can  have  a  truly 
noble  history  unless  it  is  founded  on  the  eternal  principles  of  right* 
eousness  and  truth. 


Twenty-one      fj^j^^  Standing  Army  of  the  Catholic  Church  109 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  was  involved  in  French  Protestantism  besides  reUgion? 

2.  What  was  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew? 

3.  Wliat  was  the  Edict  of  Nantes? 

4.  How  did  the  Huguenots  fare  in  France  after  that  date? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  it  happen  that  Loyola  became  a  soldier  of  the  church? 


2.  What  were  his  religious  exercises? 

3.  How  did  the  Society  of  Jesus  differ  from  other  religious  orders? 

4.  In  what  ways  did  they  win  back  the  wavering  nations? 

5.  Where  did  the  Jesuits  go  as  missionaries  in  the  East? 

6.  Tell  of  the  missionary  enterprises  of  Xavier. 

7.  In  what  regions  of  America  were  the  Jesuits  active? 

8.  Describe  the  heroism  of  Marquette  and  others. 

9.  What  were  the  later  fortunes  of  the  Jesuits  in  Europe? 

10.  Explain  the  weaknesses  of  Jesuitism. 


110  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Reading  References. 

{1)  Walker:  Great  Men  of  the  Christian  Church,  ch.  15.  {2)  Robin- 
son: Readings  in  European  History,  II,  pp.  345-351.  {S)  Robinson: 
History  of  Western  Europe^  pp.  437-444. 


Lesson  22.    THE  STRUGGLE  OF  THE  DUTCH  BURGHERS  FOR 
INDEPENDENCE.    Religion  and  Politics. 

Sources.  Brandt's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Low  Countries:  state 
and  personal  correspondence,  and  memoirs. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  in  prepa- 
ration for  questions  in  the  class. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  status  of 
the  Reformation  in  Europe  about  1550;  (6)  the  reasons  for  the  Dutch  rebellion 
against  Spain;  (c)  William  of  Orange;  (d)  the  outcome  of  the  war  for  independ- 
ence; (e)  the  Dutch  type  of  religion. 

3.  Think  over  carefully  the  following  topic:  What  are  the  elements  in  a  man's 
character  and  career  that  may  properly  entitle  him  to  greatness.'' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  written  in 
full,  (b)  Make  two  tables  comparing  the  lives  of  William  of  Orange  and  George 
Washington,  (c)  Draw  a  map  of  Europe,  and  indicate  on  it  by  color  or  shading 
the  religions  of  the  various  countries,  (d)  Read  the  story  of  the  relief  of  Ley- 
den,  and  write  it  out  in  a  short  sketch  in  your  own  words. 

Note  1.  The  People  of  the  Netherlands.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Rhine,  where  some  of  its  waters  lost  themselves  among  salt 
marshes  and  others  found  their  way  between  the  sand  dunes  to  the  sea, 
lived  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Dutch  and  Belgians.  The  Dutch  in 
the  north  were  related  to  the  Germans  and  shared  in  the  German 
nature;  the  Belgians  in  the  south  were  mainly  Celts,  and  never  fused 
into  one  people  with  their  northern  neighbors,  though  sometimes  both 
lived  under  the  same  government.  In  Reformation  days  both  coun- 
tries were  very  prosperous,  and  very  active  in  trade.  They  were 
interested  in  what  was  going  on  in  the  world,  including  religious  reforms, 
and  Lutheranism  found  its  way  into  the  country  from  the  east  and 
Calvinism  from  the  south.  In  the  north  the  people  were  inclined 
toward  Protestantism,  but  the  Celtic  nature  of  the  south  was  much 
more  loyal  to  Catholicism.  Both  parts  of  the  Netherlands  formed  a 
portion  of  the  ample  European  dominions  of  Charles  V,  king  of  Spain, 
who  was  also  by  election  emperor  of  the  German  people.  This  was  the 
emperor  who  had  condemned  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  and  who 
was  increasingly  unfriendly  to  Protestantism.     When  he  found  that  the 


Twenty-two  j,^^  Struggle  of  the  Dutch  Burghers  111 

Reformed  faith  was  spreading  in  the  Netherlands,  he  issued  a  fierce 
edict  against  it  in  the  year  1550. 

Note  2.  Europe  in  1550.  When  Charles  V  undertook  to  root  out 
Protestantism  from  the  Netherlands  in  1550,  the  continent  of  Europe 
was  much  divided  religiously.  Luther  had  convinced  a  large  majority 
of  the  German  people  that  the  Catholic  church  was  wrong,  but  his  work 
was  done.  The  Swiss  cantons  were  not  in  agreement  religiously,  but 
Zwingli  had  done  effectively  his  work  of  reform  in  Zurich,  and  Calvin 
was  approaching  the  climax  of  his  successful  administration  in  Geneva. 
The  Huguenots  in  France  were  increasing  in  numbers  in  spite  of  royal 
persecution.  England  was  introducing  Protestantism  under  its  boy 
king  Edward  VI,  and  the  new  religion  was  trying  to  find  its  way  into 
Scotland.  Poland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  other  parts  of  central 
Europe  seemed  likely  to  be  lost  to  the  Catholic  church.  On  the  other 
hand  Italy  and  Spain  remained  loyal,  and  for  ten  years  Loyola  and 
his  Jesuit  order  had  been  hard  at  work  winning  back  thousands  every- 
where to  the  old  church. 

Note  3.  The  Rebellion  of  the  Dutch.  The  king  of  Spain  acted  on 
the  principle  that  he  had  unquestionable  right  to  force  his  people  to 
practise  the  form  of  religion  that  he  approved.  The  Netherlanders  did 
not  agree  with  him.  The  king  used  force,  but  after  five  years  he 
wearied  of  his  burdens,  and  surrendered  all  his  lands  to  his  son  Philip  II. 
He  was  harsher  than  his  father,  and  punished  his  rebellious  subjects 
severely.  It  presently  became  plain  that  the  sturdy  Dutch  and  the 
determined  king  were  likely  to  come  to  blows.  All  thoughtful  men  in 
the  realm  could  see  this.  Among  these  was  a  noble  who  was  to  become 
shortly  the  champion  of  the  Dutch  in  a  war  for  independence,  and  who 
in  some  respects  resembles  Washington,  the  hero  of  American  inde- 
pendence. Driven  to  desperation  by  the  cruelties  of  the  government 
and  its  disregard  for  the  charter  rights  of  the  Dutch  cities,  the  nobles 
formed  a  league  for  the  defense  of  their  rights,  adopted  the  name  of 
**  Beggars  "  from  a  term  given  them  in  derision  and  proceeded  to 
fight  the  forces  of  the  king  of  Spain. 

Note  4.  The  War  of  Independence.  The  harsh  customs  of  those 
days  and  the  bitterness  of  religious  hate  made  war  horrible  and  cruel. 
The  straggle  in  the  Netherlands  resembled  that  between  the  Catholics 
and  the  Huguenots  in  France  in  its  character,  but  the  Dutch  nobles 
were  mostly  loyal  to  the  cause  of  the  people.  The  contest  developed 
into  a  war  for  national  independence.  In  this  the  people  of  the  southern 
provinces  joined  for  a  time,  but  differences  in  race,  character  and  reli- 


112  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

gion  led  them  to  withdraw  and  leave  the  Dutch  to  fight  it  out  alone. 
This  sturdy  people  did  not  shrink  from  the  contest.  They  looked  to 
Protestant  England  for  help,  and  they  were  expecting  aid  from  the 
French  Huguenots  when  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  took 
place,  but  for  the  most  part  they  depended  on  their  own  strength  and 
courage.  On  land  they  were  not  a  match  for  the  veterans  of  Spain, 
but  on  the  sea  the  Dutch  sailors  performed  deeds  of  valor  that  made 
the  name  of  the  "  Sea  Beggars  "  respected  and  renowned.  The  tales 
of  Dutch  bravery  and  sacrifice  for  their  cause  have  often  thrilled 
the  student  of  history,  and  take  their  place  alongside  the  stories  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  the  medieval  Swiss,  and  modern  patriots  of  America 
and  Europe.    Their  great  hero  was  William  of  Orange. 

Note  5.  William,  Prince  of  Orange.  Prince  William  was  a  man  of 
wealth  and  high  position  when  he  sacrificed  everything  to  oppose  the 
policy  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  take  the  leadership  of  the  cause  of 
Dutch  independence.  At  the  opening  of  the  struggle  he  fled  from  the 
country  and  raised  a  force  of  men  at  his  own  expense.  He  was  an 
abler  statesman  than  general,  and  his  efforts  on  the  battlefield  were 
not  very  successful.  Still  the  country  did  not  suffer  greatly,  for  the 
extensive  trade  of  the  cities  continued,  and  prosperity  even  increased. 

The  figure  of  William  of  Orange  stands  in  striking  contrast  to  that  of 
Philip  II,  king  of  Spain.  Philip  was  a  hard  taskmaster,  merciless  to 
those  who  did  not  think  as  he  did  or  obey  his  command.  He  was 
bigoted  and  narrow  minded;  the  maintenance  of  Catholicism  was  his 
master  passion;  and  he  showed  the  emotions  of  joy  and  hate  only  when 
he  was  moved  by  religious  news.  William  was  almost  alone  in  his  age 
standing  for  the  toleration  of  other  religious  opinions  than  his  own. 
He  was  brought  up  as  a  Catholic,  and  he  remained  in  that  faith  until 
Philip  began  his  policy.  Later  he  accepted  Calvinism,  but  the  form 
of  religious  faith  was  far  less  important  in  his  eyes  than  a  simple  trust 
in  God  and  a  life  devoted  to  the  public  good.  These  characteristics 
gave  him  a  lofty  and  permanent  place  in  history. 

Note  6.  The  March  of  Events.  The  siege  and  relief  of  Leyden 
marked  the  turning-point  of  the  war.  Its  fate  seemed  certain  when 
William  of  Orange  proposed  cutting  the  dykes  built  to  defend  the  city 
from  the  sea,  and  then  it  becq^me  possible  for  the  patriot  fleet  to  reach 
the  starving  people  with  welcome  relief.  In  congratulating  the  city  on 
its  escape.  Prince  William  proposed  that  the  people  celebrate  the  event 
by  founding  a  university,  and  so  the  University  of  Leyden  took  its  place 
alongside  the  universities  of  Wittenberg  and  Geneva  as  great  Protes- 
tant schools  of  learning.     After  the  war  had  dragged  on  for  seven  years 


Twenty-two  fj^j^^  Struggle  of  the  Dutch  Burghers  113 

more,  the  Dutch  formally  declared  their  independence  from  Spain, 
announcing,  in  words  that  resemble  the  American  Declaration  of 
Independence,  that  God  did  not  give  a  ruler  the  right  to  tyrannize  over 
his  people;  and  that  by  such  tyranny  he  forfeited  their  allegiance. 
This  declaration  was  provoked  by  an  outrageous  act  of  Phihp  against 
the  Dutch  hero,  William  of  Orange. 

Note  7.  The  Death  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  The  king  of  Spain 
realized  that  William  was  the  soul  of  the  Dutch  resistance.  He  re- 
solved that  the  rebel  to  liis  authority  should  die.  Against  him  on  the 
field  of  battle  had  been  arrayed  the  strongest  and  most  disciplined 
armies  of  which  Spain  could  boast,  armies  that  contained  soldiers  who 
had  seen  service  in  America  and  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  Over 
them  he  had  placed  in  command  his  ablest  generals.  The  Dutch  had 
maintained  their  cause  against  them  all.  The  king  had  tried  to  bribe 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  but  no  offer  moved  him.  At  last  he  publicly 
offered  a  large  reward  to  the  assassin  who  would  remove  the  patriot 
from  his  path.  In  reply  to  the  ban  against  him  William  of  Orange 
published  a  defense  of  the  Dutch  liberties,  and  an  arraignment  of  the 
cruel  king,  which  is  called  the  Prince's  Apology.  It  could  not  save 
his  life;  it  contained  no  hint  of  submission;  but  it  justified  William  and 
the  Dutch  in  the  judgment  of  history.  It  was  not  long  before  he  fell  a 
martyr  to  the  cause  to  which  he  had  dedicated  himself,  dying  by  an 
assassin's  bullet  with  the  words  on  his  Hps:  "  O  God,  have  pity  on  this 
poor  people." 

Note  8.  The  Issue  of  the  Struggle.  The  war  did  not  end  with  the 
death  of  William.  His  son,  Prince  Maurice,  took  his  place  in  the  field, 
and  John  of  Barneveldt  imitated  his  statesmanship.  The  English 
crossed  the  channel  and  gave  substantial  aid  to  the  fighting  Dutch. 
The  young  prince  proved  himself  an  able  leader.  Other  nations 
became  involved  in  the  war  as  it  went  on.  Philip  of  Spain  died  at  last, 
and  when  every  one  was  weary  of  the  struggle  a  truce  was  arranged, 
and  eventually  the  independence  of  the  northern  Dutch  provinces  was 
acknowledged. 

Note  9.  The  Protestant  Church  of  the  Netherlands.  The  success 
of  the  Dutch  revolt  gave  a  nev/  nation  to  Europe,  and  so  it  is  of  impor- 
tance in  political  history.  It  was  a  struggle  far  more  momentous  to  the 
cause  of  religion  in  Europe.  The  Dutch  occupied  an  important  place 
in  the  Protestant  line  of  defense,  and  their  success  insured  the  future  of 
Protestantism.  It  was  not  clear  for  some  time  just  what  form  of  Prot- 
estantism would  be  generally  adopted.     All  the  great  leaders  of  the 


114  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"'^^^ 

Reformation  had  their  followers.  The  Dutch  Protestant  churches 
were  organized  usually  on  the  presbyterian  basis,  and  in  the  end  Cal- 
vinism became  the  national  form  of  faith.  The  Dutch  creed,  which  is 
known  as  the  Belgic  Confession,  was  drawn  up  after  the  fashion  of  the 
confession  of  faith  of  the  French  Protestants,  and  for  the  instruction 
of  the  young  people  the  Dutch  church  accepted  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism of  the  west  German  Calvinists. 

There  came  a  time  in  the  early  seventeenth  century  when  a  disagree- 
ment arose  over  the  theology  which  ought  to  be  taught  in  the  Dutch 
universities  and  churches.  Arminius,  a  university  professor,  pro- 
claimed opinions  that  were  not  in  harmony  with  the  Calvinistic  theol- 
ogy, and  some  of  the  strong  Calvinists  regarded  his  heresy  as  serious. 
As  Calvinistic  Presbyterianism  had  been  adopted  as  the  Protestant 
type  of  faith  for  the  Dutch  Reformed  church  by  act  of  the  nation,  it 
seemed  necessary  to  have  a  church  council  to  settle  the  dispute,  and  a 
famous  synod  was  the  result.  Representatives  from  England  and 
Germany  joined  with  Dutch  Calvinists  in  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  con- 
demned Arminianism  in  1618.  Most  modern  evangelical  denomina- 
tions except  the  Methodists  have  been  Calvinists,  and  for  that  reason 
the  victory  of  Calvinism  at  this  Dutch  synod  holds  a  prominent  place 
in  modern  church  history. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  were  the  Jesuits.^ 

2.  What  made  them  so  effective  in  the  service  of  the  Catholic  church? 

3.  Why  have  they  become  famous  in  history? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  is  meant  by  the  land  and  the  people  of  the  Netherlands? 


2.  Describe  religious  conditions   in  western  and   central   Europe 
about  1550. 


3.  Why  did  the  Dutch  rebel  against  Spain? 

4.  Why  did  not  all  the  provinces  persist  in  the  war  for  independence? 


Twenty-ihree         ^  Ktiight  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  115 

5.  Tell  the  part  of  William  of  Orange  in  the  war. 

6.  Compare  Prince  William  and  King  Philip  of  Spain, 

7.  What  was  the  fate  of  Prince  William? 

8.  Describe  the  last  part  of  the  war  and  its  results. 

9.  What  was  the  Dutch  form  of  Protestantism? 

10.  Explain  the  importance  of  the  Synod  of  Dort. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Myers:  The  Modern  Age,  ch.  4.     (^)  GrifEs:  Brave  Little  Holland 
and  What  She  has  Taught  Us.     {$)  Versteeg:  The  Sea  Beggars, 


Lesson  23.    A  KNIGHT   OF  THE    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 
How  Gustavus  Adolphus  Saved  German  Protestantism. 

Sources. — Swedish  histories;  letters  of  Gustavus  Adolphus;  periodicals,  like 
the  Swedish  Intelligencer  published  in  London  and  Theatrum  Europaeum  in  Ger- 
many; records  in  the  archives  of  the  German  states;  correspondence  of  partici- 
pants in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson 
preparatory  to  questions  in  the  class. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  meaning  of  a  knight;  (b) 
the  crisis  in  the  fortunes  of  Protestantism;  (c)  the  part  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  (d)  the  contrast  between  Gustavus  and  Wallenstein; 
(e)  the  outcome  of  the  war. 


116  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


3.  Think  about  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion :  What  better  ways  are 
there  of  settling  international  difficulties  to-day? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  is  properly  complete.  (6) 
Draw  a  map  to  show  the  countries  involved  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  (c) 
Write  a  brief  character  sketch  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  (d)  Make  a  chart  with 
parallel  columns  to  show  the  leading  events  in  the  Protestant  history  of  Europe 
between  1500  and  1650  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  France  and  the  Netherlands. 

Note  1.  The  Knights  of  Chivalry.  In  the  disturbed  state  of 
society  that  was  chronic  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was  customary  for 
individual  men  to  devote  their  time  and  strength  to  fighting  for  the 
church  and  for  women  of  quality  who  could  not  fight  for  themselves. 
This  was  the  medieval  way  of  expressing  gentlemanly  courtesy,  just  as 
a  monastic  life  was  the  expression  of  a  religious  ambition,  or  participa- 
tion in  a  crusade  denoted  a  desire  for  Christian  activity.  Those  who 
became  knights  with  this  cliivalrous  purpose  were  expressly  set  apart 
by  a  ceremony,  and  some  of  them  were  so  eager  to  play  an  admirable 
part  in  warlike  enterprise  that  they  wandered  over  Europe  in  search 
of  adventure.  Such  knighthood  was  no  longer  conspicuous  after  the 
passing  of  the  days  of  chivalry,  but  the  spirit  of  adventure  survived 
and  appeared  frequently  in  the  enterprises  of  discovery  and  settlement 
in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Note  2.  The  Need  of  Protestant  Champions.  In  that  same  century 
there  was  abundant  opportunity  for  knights  of  Protestantism  on  the 
battlefields  of  Europe.  The  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  had 
resulted  in  political  convulsions,  and  wars  of  religion  were  the  charac- 
teristic conflicts  of  the  time.  Luther  and  Calvin  had  contended 
against  Catholicism  with  spiritual  weapons,  but  neither  of  them  had 
been  military  men.  In  France  and  in  the  Netherlands  wars  had  been 
fought  in  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  were  both  religious 
and  political  in  character.  The  Protestant  Dutch  won  tlieir  independ- 
ence from  Spain,  but  the  Protestants  of  France  were  crowded  out  of 
the  country.  The  Jesuits  had  done  what  they  could  to  hold  the  nations 
to  the  Catholic  church.  With  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century 
it  was  plain  that  religious  supremacy  in  Europe  must  be  settled  on  the 
field  of  battle,  and  the  theater  of  war  seemed  likely  to  be  Germany. 
In  the  land  of  Luther  there  was  no  strong  central  government.  Many 
small  states  had  their  own  rulers  and  conducted  their  own  affairs  with- 
out much  reference  to  the  emperor  wlio  was  over  them  all.  The  princes 
of  some  of  these  states  had  decided  for  the  religion  of  Luther,  some 
for  that  of  Calvin,  and  some  held  to  the  Catholic  faitli.  It  had  been 
agreed  between  Lutherans  and  Catholics  at  Augsburg  in  1.555  that  each 
prince  could  decide  for  his  people  between  these  two  faiths;  Calvinists 


Twenty-three 


A  Knight  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  117 


had  no  legal  standing.  Arrangements  had  been  made  also  for  the 
disposal  of  church  property  in  dispute.  But  fifty  years  had  shown  how 
unsatisfactory  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  was,  and  all  parties  were  ready 
to  fight  out  the  issue.  The  great  lack  was  a  trustworthy  leader  on  the 
Protestant  side. 

Note  3.  Outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  After  war  had 
seemed  inevitable  for  a  long  time,  leagues  had  been  formed,  and  prep- 
arations had  been  made,  the  conflict  began  in  Bohemia  in  1618  as  a  dis- 
pute over  church  property.  It  proved  to  be  a  long  war,  and  was  most 
destructive  to  the  prosperity  of  Germany.  It  began  as  a  religious 
dispute  within  the  German  empire,  but  it  drew  in  from  outside  those 
who  had  political  and  religious  grievances,  and  when  the  war  of  thirty 
years  was  over,  the  map  of  much  of  Europe  had  to  be  readjusted. 

Bohemia  had  a  king  of  its  own,  and  was  a  part  of  the  German  empire. 
When  the  war  broke  out  the  Protestants  deposed  their  Catholic  king, 
and  invited  a  Protestant  prince  from  the  Rhine  to  the  throne  of  Bo- 
hemia. Protestant  plans  failed,  however;  and  a  second  period  of  the 
war  began  when  the  king  of  Denmark  interested  himself  in  the  German 
war,  and  championed  the  cause  of  the  Protestants.  The  doctrines  of 
Luther  had  made  their  way  into  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and 
all  these  countries  had  become  Protestant.  But  the  king  of  Denmark 
had  no  better  success  than  the  prince  from  the  Rhine,  and  in  1630  it 
looked  very  dark  for  the  Protestants  of  Europe. 

Note  4.  GustavusAdolphus.  Then  it  was  that  the  king  of  Sweden, 
like  a  knight  of  cliivalry,  intervened,  and  made  the  cause  of  the  German 
Protestants  his  own.  He  had  been  influenced  to  do  this  for  several 
reasons.  Foremost  among  them  was  his  conviction  that  the  cause  of 
the  German  Protestants  was  right,  and  that  they  needed  liim  as  their 
champion.  He  had  other  interests  of  his  own  in  the  war,  which  were 
chiefly  political.  He  was  helped  to  his  determination  by  the  influence 
of  the  French  who  had  designs  of  their  own  upon  Germany. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a  king  who  had  accomplished  great  things 
for  Sweden.  When  he  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  the 
resources  of  the  nation  were  not  organized,  and  the  country  was  dis- 
tracted with  foreign  dangers  and  difiiculties.  In  twenty  years  he  was 
able  to  put  the  nation  in  order  and  to  turn  foreign  dangers  into  success- 
ful campaigns.  He  had  become  one  of  the  leading  princes  of  Europe, 
when  he  saw  the  need  of  his  presence  in  Germany.  Before  the  national 
assembly  he  presented  arrangements  for  the  conduct  of  the  government 
in  his  absence,  and  said  his  farewells  in  language  that  seemed  to  show 
his  presentiment  that  he  might  never  return. 


118  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'"°** 

Note  5.  The  Swedes  in  Germany.  With  a  strong  army  the 
"  Lion  of  the  North  "  landed  in  Germany,  but  the  Protestant  princes 
were  suspicious  of  his  motives  and  jealous  of  his  leadership.  Their 
inability  to  pull  together  seriously  handicapped  the  Protestants  during 
the  war.  The  Protestant  princes  did  not  unite  until  the  fall  of  Mag- 
deburg and  the  cruel  punishment  of  its  defenders  by  Tilly,  the  com- 
mander of  the  CathoHc  forces,  showed  them  clearly  what  they  had  to 
expect.  Then  the  princes  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  joined  forces 
with  the  Swedish  king,  and  in  a  great  battle  at  Breitenfeld  Tilly  and 
the  Catholics  were  defeated.  The  Protestant  knight  pushed  across 
Saxony;  met  the  CathoHcs  again,  when  Tilly  lost  his  life;  and  presently 
the  Catholics  awoke  to  the  fact  that  the  Snow-king  of  the  North,  as  they 
had  contemptuously  called  him,  did  not  melt  as  he  moved  southward, 
but  instead  he  was  likely  to  master  all  Germany  unless  he  was  speedily 
checked. 

Note  6.  Wallenstein  and  Gustavus.  The  only  man  to  whom  the 
Catholics  could  turn  in  their  distress  was  an  independent  adventurer 
named  Wallenstein,  who  had  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  early 
period  of  the  war  as  a  CathoUc  general,  until  the  emperor  was  forced 
to  dismiss  him  from  the  service  because  he  could  not  be  trusted.  Wall- 
enstein was  one  of  those  men  who  was  so  unscrupulous  that  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  stoop  to  the  meanest  act  if  he  might  gain  a  selfish  end.  In 
the  crisis  of  the  war  the  emperor  turned  to  him  for  help.  Wallenstein 
would  not  give  it  unless  he  was  granted  a  free  hand.  Then  he  set  up 
his  standard  and  rallied  forty  thousand  men  of  his  own  kind,  who 
proved  far  more  harmful  even  to  the  CathoUcs  of  Germany  than  was 
Gustavus.  It  was  through  such  soldiers  as  these  that  the  war  brought 
such  widespread  disaster  and  suffering  to  the  people  of  Germany. 

After  considerable  manoeuvering  the  armies  of  Wallenstein  and  Gus- 
tavus met.  on  the  battlefield  of  Lutzen  in  Saxony  late  in  the  year  1632. 
The  two  ablest  generals  of  the  whole  war  confronted  each  other  for  a 
fight  that  seemed  likely  to  prove  the  turning-point  of  the  whole  war. 
Gustavus  was  representative  of  the  best  element  in  Protestantism.  He 
was  fighting  for  what  he  believed  was  a  holy  cause,  and  he  looked  to 
God  for  the  victory.  Wallenstein  was  a  man  of  different  mould.  He 
cared  nothing  for  the  religious  interests  that  were  involved.  He  would 
as  soon  have  gone  over  to  the  side  of  Gustavus  as  to  fight  him,  if  in  that 
way  he  could  better  have  gained  his  end.  Gustavus  stood  for  the 
highest  type  of  religion  in  arms.  Wallenstein  represented  the  worst 
element  that  fights  the  battles  of  nations.  Conscious  of  the  momentous 
issue  of  the  conflict  the  Swedish  king  went  into  battle  with  the  name  of 


Twenty-three         ^  Knight  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  119 

Jesus  on  his  lips;  Wallenstein  faced  him  after  he  put  to  the  torch  the 
city  of  Lutzen  in  his  rear. 

Note  7.  The  Fortunes  of  War.  The  Swedes  were  far  less  numer- 
ous than  the  men  of  Wallenstein,  and  they  had  been  left  alone  to  fight 
for  Protestantism.  Gustavus  did  not  spare  himself,  but  rushed  into 
the  thickest  of  the  fight.  Inspired  by  his  example,  the  gallant  Swedes 
fought  with  resistless  valor,  and  before  the  day  was  over  drove  the 
Catholic  adventurers  to  disastrous  retreat.  But  on  the  field  of  battle 
lay  the  body  of  the  Swedish  king.  He  had  won  his  last  victor  v.  He 
had  given  his  hfe  for  Sweden  and  for  the  Protestant  cause  in  Germany. 
He  had  won  a  place  among  the  noblest  knights  in  the  annals  of  chivalry. 

The  war  might  have  ended  then  if  it  had  not  been  that  the  selfish 
interests  of  France  and  Sweden  led  them  to  unite  their  forces  to  weaken 
still  further  the  German  emperor.  And  so  the  wearisome  war  dragged 
on.  Wallenstein,  planning  treachery,  was  assassinated  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  emperor,  dying  ignominiously  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  original  contestants  passed  off 
the  field  of  action.  One  province  of  the  empire  after  another  felt  the 
evil  effects  of  the  war,  until  sheer  exhaustion  finally  led  to  peace. 

Note  8.  The  Treaty  of  Westphalia.  After  prolonged  conferences 
all  parties  were  able  to  agree  upon  terms  of  peace  in  the  year  1648. 
Issues  that  had  convulsed  Europe  for  generations  were  now  brought  up 
for  settlement.  The  arrangements  provided  for  the  adjustment  of  both 
the  political  and  the  religious  questions  that  had  made  so  much  trouble. 
By  the  terms  of  the  peace  the  Swiss  cantons  and  the  Dutch  provinces 
were  recognized  as  independent.  France  and  Sweden  both  gained 
territory  at  the  expense  of  the  German  empire.  But  the  religious 
issues  were  of  greatest  interest  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  Once 
for  all  it  was  settled  that  the  results  of  the  Reformation  were  to  remain 
permanent.  The  last  effort  of  the  Catholic  church  to  hold  all  Europe 
had  failed.  Henceforth  Catholics  and  Protestants  must  tolerate  each 
other.  Catholics,  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  were  allowed  an  equal 
footing  in  Germany,  but  the  prince  of  each  state  must  be  the  one 
to  decide  the  form  of  religion  for  his  people,  and  those  who  did  not 
like  it  must  make  the  best  of  it  or  emigrate.  Germany  and  Switzerland 
remained  part  Catholic  and  part  Protestant.  England,  Scotland,  the 
Netherlands,  and  the  Scandinavian  countries  were  henceforth  to  be 
reckoned  as  Protestant.  France,  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy  were  loyal 
to  the  faith  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Not  all  the  vexing  questious  of  religion 
were  settled,  but  new  interests,  economic  and  political,  were  demand- 
ing attention.    The  wars  of  religion  were  over. 


120  -  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  Preceding  Lessons. 

1.  Who  was  the  great  leader  of  the  Swiss  Reformation? 

2.  How  widely  did  his  influence  spread? 

3.  What  was  the  title  of  his  great  work  on  Protestant  theology? 

4.  Who  were  the  Huguenots? 

5.  Describe  their  fortunes. 

6.  Explain  the  Dutch  struggle  for  liberty. 

7.  Estimate  the  worth  of  William  of  Orange. 

8.  Who  was  the  king  of  Spain  that  opposed  Dutch  independence? 

9.  Who  were  the  Jesuits? 

10.  What  was  their  influence  on  Europe? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  a  knight  of  chivalry. 


2.  In  what  sense  was  Gustavus  Adolphus  such  a  knight? 

3.  Explain  the  need  of  the  Protestants  in  Germany. 

4.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  Thirty  Years*  War? 

5.  What  was  the  condition  of  Sweden  politically  and  religiously? 

6.  Describe  the  part  played  by  Sweden  in  the  war. 

-'*.  Show  the  contrast  between  Wallenstein  and  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
8.  What  was  the  character  of  the  war  in  its  last  period? 


Twenty-four        ^  NohUman  of  the  Eighteenth  Centunj  121 

9.  What  were  the  poHtical  results  of  the  war? 

10.  Wliat  were  the  rehgious  results  of  the  war? 


Reading  References. 
(1)   Myers:    The  Modern  Age,  ch.   6,     (^)   Robinson:  History  of 
Western  Europe,  ch.  29.     (3)  Fletcher:  Gustavus  Adolphus. 


Lesson  24.    A  NOBLEMAN  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Count  Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravians. 

Sources. — The  writings  of  Spener  and  Zinzendorf;  Spangenberg's  Life  of 
Zinzendorf;  diary  of  David  Zeisberger. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson  for 
class  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Notice  especially:  (a)  the  new  spirit  in  the 
Pietists;  (h)  the  influence  of  tliis  new  spirit  on  Zinzendorf;  (c)  Moravian  missions. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion  in  class:  What 
made  missionaries  of  the  Moravians.'^  Can  Christians  be  true  to  their  faith 
and  not  be  missionary.? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(6)  Write  a  sketch  comparing  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Zinzendorf.  (c)  Look 
up  the  Moravians  in  one  of  the  encyclopedias  or  histories  and  make  a  list  of 
the  missionary  undertakings  of  the  Moravians,  (d)  Write  a  brief  account  of 
the  Moravians  in  the  United  States.  (Cf.  Hamilton:  History  of  the  Moravian 
Church  in  the  United  States.) 

Note  1.  Evangelical  Christianity  in  Germany.  It  is  natural  for 
rehgious  enthusiasm  to  give  place  after  a  while  to  regular  forms  of 
religion  that  may  express  the  constant  purpose  of  the  soul.  The 
danger  in  this  process  lies  in  the  inclination  to  make  a  form  of  doctrine 
or  a  religious  ceremony  the  whole  of  religion.  In  that  case  religion 
ceases  to  control  impulse,  the  consciousness  of  fellowship  with  God  is 
lost,  and  moral  vitality  is  sapped.  That  is  what  happened  in  Germany 
after  the  glow  of  the  religious  revival  under  Luther  had  passed  away. 
The  wars  between  Protestants  and  Catholics  emphasized  externals, 
and  distracted  the  mind  from  spiritual  concerns.  Lutheranism  came 
to  stand  for  a  theology  as  dead  as  that  of  the  medieval  Schoolmen,  and 


122  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


for  forms  of  worship  and  organization  that  were  little  better  than  those 
of  the  Catholic  church.  It  seemed  as  if  the  evangelical  revival  had 
failed. 

Note  2.  The  Pietists.  It  has  been  the  experience  of  the  church 
through  nearly  nineteen  centuries  that  it  has  had  many  periods  of 
religious  decline  like  that  in  Germany.  But  every  decline  has  had  its 
revival,  and  following  abuses  has  come  reform.  Germany  was  no 
exception.  In  1648  at  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  seemed  as 
if  religion  were  dead.  But  before  that  war  was  over  there  was  born 
the  man  who  was  to  give  a  new  type  of  religion  to  the  fatherland  in 
what  is  known  as  Pietism.  Tliis  was  Philip  Jacob  Spener.  In  1670 
Spener  was  pastor  in  the  German  city  of  Frankfort,  and  he  felt  the 
deadness  of  religion  so  keenly  that  he  made  a  special  effort  to  make  it 
seem  more  real  in  human  life.  For  this  purpose  he  held  religious 
meetings  in  his  own  house  twice  a  week  of  those  who  showed  an  interest 
and  by  religious  reading  and  conversation  endeavored  to  cultivate 
spirituality.  By  this  means  and  by  his  writings  Spener  tried  to  start 
an  influence  in  each  church  that  would  permeate  the  whole  body  and 
revitalize  Lutheranism.  Emphasis  was  put  on  certain  experiences, 
like  conversion,  that  has  never  been  lost  out  of  the  evangelical  churches. 

It  was  not  strange  that  these  unusual  ideas  and  practices  met  with 
opposition  in  the  churches  of  Germany,  but  Spener  made  friends 
among  earnest  men  and  women,  and  wherever  he  went  he  was  recog- 
nized as  a  leader.  His  most  famous  disciple  and  helper  was  August 
Francke,  who  put  stress  on  Bible  study.  In  1694  a  new  university 
was  opened  at  Halle,  and  before  long  Francke  became  a  professor  there 
and  made  that  school  the  center  of  Pietism.  The  Pietists  are  to  be 
remembered  not  merely  as  preachers  of  new  ideas  in  religion,  but  as 
practical  reformers  also.  Halle  became  famous  for  its  orphanage  as 
well  as  its  university;  it  maintained  an  influential  Christian  press; 
it  contained  a  large  preparatory  school  fathered  by  Francke;  and  it 
trained  and  sent  out  the  first  Protestant  missionaries  to  India.  Alto- 
gether Pietism  played  a  very  important  part  in  Christian  progress 
about  the  year  1700. 

Note  3.  Count  Zinzendorf.  When  Spener  was  court  preacher  in 
Dresden,  he  acted  as  godfather  for  the  child  of  a  nobleman  of  Saxony. 
The  boy  was  brought  up  by  his  grandmother,  who  was  a  friend  of  the 
Pietist  leaders.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  to  Francke  at  Halle, 
and  became  a  pupil  in  the  preparatory  school.  There  he  became 
deeply  religious  like  the  Pietists ;  but  his  uncle  did  not  think  this  whole- 
some, and  he  went  from  Halle  to  Wittenberg,  where  Luther  had  done 


T^venty-four       ^  Noblemau  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  123 

his  great  work.  There  he  studied  law  for  three  years,  but  never  with 
his  heart  fully  at  ease.  Travel  and  poHtical  Hfe  broadened  his  ideas 
and  his  experience,  and  then  he  married  and  settled  on  a  large  estate 
in  Saxony  that  had  belonged  in  the  family.  This  man  was  Count 
Zinzendorf.  It  was  he  who  gave  a  refuge  to  the  persecuted  Moravians, 
and  who  is  known  in  history  as  their  leader.  He  received  his  religious 
impulse  from  the  Pietists,  and  never  lost  that  impulse  as  long  as  he 
lived.  The  Moravians  furnished  an  evangelical  impulse  to  John 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  the  Methodists,  and  so  it  is  possible  to  trace 
an  evangelical  line  of  descent  from  the  Pietists  in  the  Lutheran  church, 
through  the  Moravians  and  Methodists  to  the  present  time. 

Note  4.  Origin  of  the  Moravians.  Before  Luther  spoke  the  words 
that  precipitated  the  Reformation,  John  Huss  of  Bohemia  had  aroused 
many  Bohemians  and  Moravians  to  truer  ideas  of  Christianity.  His 
followers  called  themselves  United  Brethren,  but  they  were  persecuted 
almost  out  of  existence.  Nevertheless  a  few  survived,  and  in  the  first 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while  the  young  Zinzendorf  was  getting 
his  education,  the  "  Brethren "  were  encouraged  and  united  by 
Christian  David,  a  warm-hearted,  spiritually  minded  Lutheran.  He 
looked  about  for  a  place  to  which  the  Moravians  might  go  and  be  safe 
from  annoyance.  The  wishes  of  these  true-hearted  Christians  became 
known  to  Count  Zinzendorf,  who  desired  to  be  a  friend  to  such  people 
wherever  he  might  find  them,  and  he  permitted  the  refugees  to  settle 
on  his  land.  Two  families  came  first,  but  others  followed  them,  until 
at  least  three  hundred  people  belonged  to  the  settlement.  This  place 
of  refuge  the  Moravian  Brethren  called  Herrnliut,  or  the  Lord's  Watch. 
A  monument  commemorates  the  beginning  of  the  settlement  with  the 
inscription:  "On  this  spot  was  felled  the  first  tree  for  the  settlement 
of  Herrnhut,  June  17,  1722,"  and  underneath  the  words  of  the  Psalm- 
ist: "  Yea,  the  sparrow  hath  found  an  house,  and  the  swallow  a  nest 
for  herself  where  she  may  lay  her  young,  even  thine  altars,  O  Lord  of 
hosts,  my  king  and  my  God." 

Note  6.  Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravians.  The  owner  of  the  lands 
greeted  the  newcomers  most  cordially.  It  is  said  that  when  he  first 
found  them  on  his  estate,  he  entered  the  house  where  the  Moravians 
were,  welcomed  them,  and  bowed  with  them  in  prayer  to  God  for  his 
blessing  upon  them.  A  nobleman  of  such  religious  type  as  Zinzendorf 
was  unusual  in  Germany,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  the  humble  Mora- 
vians should  have  looked  to  their  generous  benefactor  not  only  for  pro- 
tection but  also  for  leadership.  Zinzendorf  accepted  the  responsibility, 
and  shared  the  best  that  he  had  with  his  adopted  people.     He  had  little 


1^4  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


sympathy  with  sectarianism.  It  was  his  desire  to  unite  all  his  Mora- 
vians on  the  simple  platform  of  a  common  love  to  Christ.  This  was 
sometimes  expressed  in  crude  ways,  but  the  spirit  of  the  body  was 
in  deep  sympathy  with  its  leader,  who  once  exclaimed:  "  I  have  but 
one  passion;  it  is  He,  only  He,"  It  proved  impossible  to  get  them  all 
to  agree  in  matters  of  belief,  but  Zinzendorf  held  them  together,  pre- 
served the  ancient  Moravian  succession  of  bishops,  organized  the 
brotherhood  with  bishops,  priests  and  deacons,  and  established  their 
worship.  The  life  of  the  people  was  semi-monastic,  for  the  people 
lived  in  groups,  had  a  distinctive  costume,  and  were  governed  as  a 
congregation.  At  first  Zinzendorf  was  only  protector  and  counsellor, 
but  eventually  he  superintended  the  whole  company  with  the  office 
of  bishop. 

Note  6.  Moravians  as  Missionaries.  After  the  thrilling  stories 
of  Jesuit  missions  there  are  no  great  tales  of  missionary  heroism 
before  the  Moravian  missionary  enterprises.  It  seems  remarkable 
that  the  early  Protestants  did  not  have  the  missionary  impulse  to 
carry  their  new  faith  abroad.  Perhaps  they  were  too  busy  at  home. 
At  all  events  it  was  a  new  idea  for  Protestants,  except  in  connection 
with  Halle,  when  the  Moravians  became  fired  with  missionary  enthusi- 
asm. Zinzendorf  had  the  ambition  to  evangelize  the  dead  churches 
of  Europe  by  planting  Moravian  outposts  here  and  there,  and  they 
were  extended  even  to  England  and  America.  He  himself  at  one 
time  visited  the  Moravian  settlements  in  Pennsylvania,  .and  tried  to 
reach  the  Indians  with  the  Clu-istian  gospel.  But  the  Moravians  are 
most  famous  as  missionaries  to  the  most  remote  and  unpromising 
people  in  the  world.  They  sought  places  of  peculiar  hardship.  They 
settled  in  Greenland  and  Iceland;  they  went  to  the  most  inliospitable 
parts  of  Africa;  they  found  their  way  to  China,  to  the  West  Indies,  to 
Ceylon,  to  Mohammedan  North  Africa.  They  were  pioneers  for  many 
missionary  organizations  in  the  next  century.  In  proportion  to  their 
numbers  and  their  resources  the  Moravians  have  done  more  for  mis- 
sions than  any  other  among  modern  Christian  sects.  Ever  since 
their  first  enterprises  they  have  been  a  missionary  inspiration. 

Note  7.  A  Striking  Contrast.  Count  Zinzendorf  will  never  be 
reckoned  as  a  great  man  in  history.  But  he  was  a  Christian  of  whom 
the  church  may  well  be  proud.  He  was  a  prince  among  the  noblemen 
of  his  day.  The  average  man  of  social  position  in  the  eighteenth 
century  was  not  a  man  of  noble  impulse  and  honorable  endeavor. 
He  was  proud,  independent,  careless  in  habits,  and  of  questionable 
morals.     His  religion,  if  he  had  any,  was  a  veneer  that  could  be  easily 


Twenty-four        ^  NohUman  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  1<2.5 

rubbed  off.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  gratification  of  his  own  whims. 
He  hved  solely  for  himself,  and  died  as  if  there  was  nothing  beyond. 
Zinzendorf  was  one  of  God's  true  noblemen.  He  spent  his  life  for 
others  besides  himself.  Not  his  own  satisfaction  but  their  good,  was 
the  goal  of  his  ambition.  He  could  share  hardship  with  the  lowliest 
of  the  Moravians  in  carrying  out  a  worthy  mission.  He  suffered 
banishment  without  complaint.  He  saw  some  of  his  plans  fail.  In 
all  his  experiences  he  was  loyal  to  the  task  that  God  had  set  him  to 
carry  out.     He  deserves  a  place  with  the  heroes  of  Christian  story. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Wliy  is  the  Thirty  Years'  War  important  in  history  ? 

2.  Who  were  its  most  striking  military  figures? 

3.  What  did  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  accomplish? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Explain  who  are  meant  by  the  Pietists. 


2.  Describe  the  acti\aties  of  Francke  at  Halle. 


3.  Who  was  Count  Zinzendorf? 


4,  Give  an  account  of  the  early  Moravians,  and  their  settlement  at 
Herrnhut. 


5.  What  was  Zinzendorf's  basis  of  Christian  union? 


6.  How  did  the  Moravians  live? 


7.  What  were  Zinzendorf's  ambitions  for  Moravian  activity? 


126  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

8.  Outline  the  history  of  Moravian  missions. 

9.  How  do  they  compare  with  other  Christian  bodies? 


10.  Contrast  Zin^endorf  with  the  typical  nobleman  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Reading;  References. 
{1)  Sohm:  Outlines  of  Church  History,  pp.    188-195.     (2)  Walker: 
Great  Men  of  the  Christian  Church,  ch.   17.     {3)  Vedder:  Christian 
Epoch  MakerSy  ch.  14. 


Lesson  25.    AN  EMPEROR  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 
Napoleon  and  the  Religious  Situation  in  Europe. 

Sourdes. — Correspondence  of  Napoleon;  documents  on  the  negotiation  of  the 
concordat,  published  by  the  Society  of  Diplomatic  History  at  Paris;  various 
memoirs;  Desenne's  General  French  Code  of  Laws. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson,  and 
be  prepared  to  answer  questions. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story,  noting  especially:  (a)  The  effect  of  the  French 
Revolution  upon  the  church;  (6)  the  importance  of  Napoleon;  (c)  the  con- 
cordat; (d)  the  French  Protestants. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topics  for  class  discussion:  Was  Napoleon's 
treatment  of  the  Catholic  church  fair?  What  must  modern  Protestant  churches 
do  to  enjoy  the  approval  and  allegiance  of  the  people? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(6)  Make  two  lists,  one  to  show  the  principal  events  of  the  Revolution  up  to 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  terror,  the  other  to  show  the  steps  in  the  advance  and 
decline  of  Napoleon's  fortunes,  (c)  Draw  a  map  of  Europe  to  show  the  extent 
of  Napoleon's  power,  (d)  Show  by  a  table  what  the  Catholic  church  gained 
and  lost  by  the  concordat  of  1801. 

Note  1.  The  French  Revolution.  The  greatest  social  and  political 
upheaval  in  Europe  after  the  Reformation  was  the  French  Revolution, 
which  began  in  1789,  was  transformed  into  a  personal  struggle  for 
empire  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  French  soldier,  and  ended  with 
his  overthrow  in  1815.     It  was  not  a  religious  revolt  like  the  Refor- 


rweniy-five        ^^  EmperoT  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  127 

mation,  but  it  affected  religion,  especially  in  France,  and  for  a  time 
abolished  Christianity  in  that  country.  The  Revolution  was  due  to 
the  long  oppression  of  the  people  by  both  state  and  church,  and  when 
it  came  httle  respect  was  paid  to  the  institutions  of  government  or 
rehgion.  When  the  revolutionists  gained  their  first  successes,  the 
national  assembly  turned  its  attention  to  the  church.  France  was  a 
Catholic  country,  and  many  of  its  clergy  had  never  been  reformed. 
Churches  and  monasteries  held  immense  amounts  of  property.  The 
people  generally  were  loyal  to  their  rehgion,  but  the  thinking  men  had 
little  use  for  a  Christianity  that  was  not  more  genuinely  Christian. 
The  result  was  that  the  national  assembly  took  away  the  property  of 
the  church,  and  declared  it  to  be  a  national  institution  maintained  and 
controlled  by  the  state.  Its  officers  were  to  be  elected  by  the  people. 
This  new  arrangement  was  formulated  in  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the 
clergy  in  1790.  This  act  made  many  enemies,  the  pope  denounced  it, 
and  most  of  the  clergy  refused  to  agree  to  it. 

Note  2.  Religious  Changes.  The  revolutionists  gradually  became 
drunk  with  power.  Harsher  measures  followed.  The  clergy  who 
would  not  accept  the  constitution  were  deported.  In  September,  1792, 
the  monarchy  was  abolished  and  a  reign  of  terror  began.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  three  years  religion  was  knocked  about  Hke  a  foot- 
ball. In  one  of  the  provinces  the  peasants  undertook  to  fight  for  their 
king  and  their  church,  but  the  lawlessness  of  those  in  power  displayed 
itself  even  more  hatefully  than  before.  At  Paris  a  French  actress 
was  installed  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  as  the  goddess  of  Reason, 
but  this  was  too  atheistic  for  any  but  a  few.  The  French  philosophers 
regarded  reason  as  better  than  faith,  but  their  reason  persuaded  them 
of  the  existence  of  God,  and  Robespierre,  the  last  leader  of  the  reign 
of  terror,  restored  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  proclaimed 
by  a  parliamentary  decree  that  the  French  nation  believed  in  God 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  In  the  reaction  that  followed  the 
downfall  of  Robespierre  in  1795  Christianity  came  again  to  its  own. 
The  government  declared  that  religion  was  a  voluntary  rather  than  a 
state  affair,  the  churches  were  reopened,  and  Sunday  was  once  more 
observed. 

Some  changes  had  taken  place  that  could  not  be  reversed.  Property 
had  passed  from  the  church  into  other  hands  that  never  was  restored. 
The  old  feudal  rights  that  the  church  had  so  long  enjoyed  had  been 
abolished  forever.  Many  of  the  monastic  orders  never  regained 
their  former  position  and  wealth.  There  were  no  more  church  courts. 
There  was  no  longer  any  national  support  of  orthodoxy;  Protestants 


128  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


had  a  right  to  existence.    The  medieval  church  had  become  necessarily 
somewhat  modernized. 

Note  3  The  Concordat  between  Napoleon  and  the  Pope.  In  the 
days  of  disorder  a  Corsican  lieutenant  of  artillery  distinguished  himself 
in  the  wars  in  which  France  had  become  involved,  and  he  came  out  oS 
the  confusion  as  the  leading  citizen  of  the  French  republic.  This  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  In  1799  he  made  himself  virtually  the  ruler 
of  the  nation,  and  four  years  later  received  the  title  of  emperor  from 
the  French  people,  who  were  proud  of  his  wonderful  success  in  war, 
and  of  his  peaceful  reforms  in  France. 

Bonaparte  saw  the  advantage  of  coming  to  terms  with  the  Catholic 
church.  Personally  he  had  little  interest  in  religion,  but  he  knew 
that  it  would  strengthen  his  administration  and  was  good  for  the 
people  morally  and  socially.  He  had  driven  the  pope  out  of  Rome 
in  the  course  of  his  conquest  of  Italy,  but  a  new  pope  had  been  elected, 
and  was  allowed  to  take  his  place  in  Rome.  Then  negotiations  were 
opened  between  Bonaparte  and  the  representative  of  the  pope  in  Paris, 
and  were  completed  successfully  in  the  summer  of  1801  by  the  adoption 
of  a  concordat,  or  working  treaty. 

Note  4.  Terms  of  the  Concordat.  In  the  opening  sentence  of  the 
treaty  it  was  explicitly  declared  that  Catholicism  was  the  religion  of  a 
majority  of  the  French  people  and  of  Bonaparte  himself.  The  first 
article  provided  for  Catholic  worship  unhindered  except  by  necessary 
police  regulations,  but  it  was  not  thereby  permitted  to  persecute  Prot- 
estants. The  government  was  able  to  control  the  number  and  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  in  agreement  with  the  pope,  and  the  clergy  must 
take  an  oath  to  be  loyal  to  the  state.  On  these  terms  the  state  would 
see  that  the  clergy  were  provided  with  a  living.  Bonaparte  insisted 
that  the  state  was  supreme  in  ecclesiastical  as  in  other  matters. 

In  some  respects  the  new  arrangement  was  not  satisfactory  to  Na- 
poleon, but  he  shrewdly  modified  some  of  the  terms  by  the  police  regu- 
lations of  ecclesiastical  affairs  that  he  introduced.  The  pope  felt  him- 
self injured  by  such  conduct,  but  he  could  not  afford  to  break  with 
the  powerful  Frenchman,  and  difficulties  were  smoothed  over.  So 
cordial  were  their  relations  that  Bonaparte  presently  arranged  with 
the  pope  for  an  Italian  concordat  also.  In  France  there  was  some 
objection  to  the  new  treaty,  but  Bonaparte  was  able  to  enforce  his 
will  upon  all,  and  Catholic  Christianity  was  officially  inaugurated 
again  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame. 

Note  6.  French  Protestants.  Bonaparte  realized  that  the  friend- 
ship of  all  parties  was  valuable  to  him,  and  for  this  reason  he  recog- 


Tweniy-five         ^^  EmperoT  of  tJw  Nineteenth  Century  129 

nized  the  Protestants  as  well  as  the  Cathohcs,  and  even  gave  the  Jews 
the  protection  of  the  government  if  they  would  pay  their  taxes  and 
perform  military  service.  The  principal  Protestant  bodies  in  France 
were  the  Lutherans  and  the  Calvinists.  They  had  suffered  much  in  the 
past.  In  the  days  of  the  religious  wars  they  had  been  so  hated  as  to 
bring  about  the  massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew.  King  Henry  IV  had 
granted  toleration  to  them,  but  Louis  XIV  had  withdrawn  it  and 
Protestants  had  fled  to  other  lands.  A  better  policy  had  been  followed 
before  the  Revolution,  and  that  event  made  them  free  but  weak.  Now 
they  were  brought  under  state  control  as  were  the  Catholics.  Their 
officers  might  be  chosen  by  their  own  organizations,  but  their  choice 
must  receive  the  approval  of  Bonaparte.  In  return  for  this  the  state 
would  furnish  support  for  Protestant  ministers  just  as  for  Catholic 
priests,  and  their  worship  was  unhindered. 

Note  6.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  and  the  Church.  In  1804  Bona- 
parte became  emperor  of  France  with  the  title  of  Napoleon  I.  His 
ambition  was  to  restore  the  glory  of  the  empires  of  the  past.  Rome 
dazzled  him.  Charlemagne  and  Otto  were  to  be  surpassed.  The 
powers  of  Europe  opposed  these  ambitions,  but  with  marvellous 
military  ability  he  moved  his  armies  against  one  after  another  of  his 
enemies,  and  brought  them  to  his  feet.  Within  six  years  he  reached 
the  climax  of  power.  The  Netherlands,  most  of  Germany,  Switzer- 
land and  Italy  were  a  part  of  French  territory  or  were  ruled  by  his 
dependents.  In  his  triumphal  progress  he  had  not  scrupled  to  remove 
the  pope  from  his  path.  French  armies  occupied  Rome,  and  the  pope 
was  compelled  to  submit  himself  to  Napoleon  more  completely  than 
any  of  his  predecessors.  It  was  plain  that  Napoleon  had  no  quarrel 
with  religion  in  his  dominions,  whether  it  was  Protestant  or  Catholic, 
but  he  would  not  permit  a  rival  ecclesiastical  power  to  stand  in  any 
sense  on  a  level  with  liis  imperial  self. 

Note  7.  The  Fall  of  Napoleon.  The  contrast  between  this  upstart 
Corsican  soldier  and  such  a  man  as  Zinzendorf,  or  such  a  prince  as 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  is  very  striking.  Zinzendorf  was  willing  to 
devote  all  that  he  had  to  the  spiritual  interests  of  men  wherever  they 
lived  or  to  whatever  race  they  belonged.  The  Swedish  king  was  will- 
ing to  risk  and  lose  his  life  for  the  sake  of  his  country  and  his  faith. 
Napoleon  cared  nothing  for  any  one  but  himself,  and  he  scrupled  not 
to  sacrifice  millions  of  lives  if  he  might  gain  his  ambition.  Such  a  man 
by  his  extraordinary  ability  was  able  to  command  the  admiration  of 
his  people  and  to  establish  a  mighty  empire,  but  he  was  not  able  to 
hand  that  empire  down  to  his  son,  or  to  give  him  a  name  loved  and 


130  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


honored  in  Europe.  In  1812  Napoleon  met  a  great  disaster  in  war 
with  Russia.  The  other  nations  that  hated  him  leagued  themselves 
against  him  once  more.  He  fought  furiously  at  bay;  and,  after  he 
had  been  once  taken  and  banished,  he  escaped  and  fought  fiercely 
a  last  great  battle  at  Waterloo.  Captive  at  last,  he  was  securely 
imprisoned  in  the  island  of  Saint  Helena  far  away  among  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  where  he  died  a  few  years  later.  European 
nations  as  far  as  possible  restored  the  conditions  that  prevailed  before 
the  Revolution,  but  in  France  the  concordat  of  1801  continued  in 
force  until  1906. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  were  the  Moravians? 

2.  Who  was  Zinzendorf? 

3.  What  has  made  the  Moravians  famous  in  religious  history? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  the  Catholic  church  help  to  cause  the  French  Revolu- 
tion? 


2.  How  did  the  revolutionists  treat  the  church  and  Christianity? 


3,  What  permanent  changes  resulted? 


4.  What  was  the  concordat? 


5.  Explain  what  each  side  gained  by  the  arrangement. 


6.  Outline  the  history  of  the  French  Protestants  before  Napoleon. 


Iwenty-six  j,^^  q^^  ^^^  ^j^^  ^^^  ^^  EuTOpe  131 

7.  What  privileges  were  granted  to  them  by  Napoleon? 


8.  What  was  Napoleon's  ambition,  and  how  far  did  he  accomplish 
it? 


9.  Contrast  Napoleon  and  Zinzendorf. 


10.  What  was  the  fate  of  Napoleon? 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Robinson  and  Beard :  The  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  I,  pp. 
310-312.  (^)  Rose:  The  Life  of  Napoleon  /,  I,  pp.  249-262.  (3) 
Morris:  The  French  Revolution,  pp.  189,  190. 


Lesson  26.    THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  IN  EUROPE.    Catholicism 
and  the  Spirit  of  the  Present  Age. 

Sources. — Decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council,  encyclical  letters  of  the  pope,  the 
French  Law  of  Associations,  the  writings  of  CathoHc  Modernists,  files  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  all  the  summaries  of  the  quarter's 
lessons,  and  be  ready  for  review  questions  in  class. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  strength- 
ening of  papal  authority;  (6)  the  restlessness  that  resulted  in  revolt  from  Rome, 
especially  in  France;  (c)  the  opposition  between  the  medieval  spirit  of  the 
Catholic  church  and  the  spirit  of  modernism;  (d)  the  steps  of  progress  in  Chris- 
tian history. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  Can  a  church  keep  its 
old  faith  in  a  new  age? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summaries  of  all  the  lessons  are  com- 
plete up  to  date,  (b)  Draw  a  map  of  Europe  to  show  the  Catholic  countries 
and  the  Protestant  countries,  and  indicate  particularly  those  that  have  recently 
thrown  off  the  ecclesiastical  control  of  the  pope,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal 
events  of  Catholic  history  since  1800.     (d)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  names 


132  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


in  Christian  history  since  Francis  of  Assisi,  arranging  them  in  groups  according 
to  centuries. 

Note  1.  Restoration  of  the  Old  Order.  The  downfall  of  Napoleon 
resulted  in  the  re-establishment  of  the  old  order  of  things  in  Europe. 
Liberty  had  proved  impossible  without  anarchy;  the  common  people 
had  shown  that  they  were  unreliable.  Everywhere  on  the  Continent 
there  was  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  old  ways.  The  papacy  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  was  an  essential  part  of  the  ancient  system. 
Once  more  the  pope  spoke  with  authority  from  the  Vatican  at  Rome, 
and  the  leaders  of  liberalism  hid  their  heads.  The  Jesuits  were  restored 
to  their  old  rights  and  privileges  and  became  leaders  of  the  extremely 
reactionary  Catholics  who  were  known  as  Ultramontanes.  Under 
their  guidance  the  ancient  church  proceeded  to  assert  spiritual  claims 
that  surpassed  in  self-assurance  the  medieval  claims  of  supremacy. 

Note  2.  Spiritual  vs.  Temporal  Authority.  In  1846  Pius  IX  be- 
came pope,  and  liis  pontificate  of  thirty-two  years  was  the  longest  in 
the  history  of  the  papacy.  During  that  time  occurred  four  events  of 
great  importance  to  the  Catholic  church.  The  first  was  the  emphatic 
declaration  of  the  sinlessness  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Catholics  had  long 
revered  Mary  as  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  extravagant  claims  of  her 
goodness  and  her  power  with  God  had  been  put  forth,  but  now  for  the 
first  time  it  was  decreed  ofiicially  that  the  absolute  sinlessness  of  Mary 
must  be  believed  by  all  Catholics.  The  second  event  was  the  publi- 
cation to  the  world  of  the  pope's  Syllabus  of  Errors,  a  relentless  con- 
demnation of  all  modern  scientific  ideas  that  in  any  way  interfered 
with  the  old  methods  of  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  of  theological 
doctrine,  of  church  history,  of  philosophy  and  of  government.  In  this 
way  the  old  church  set  itself  definitely  and  without  reserve  against  the 
spirit  and  thought  of  the  modern  age.  The  third  event  was  the  declara- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility.  The  authority  of  the  pope 
had  been  recognized  for  centuries  in  a  general  way,  but  never  had  a 
church  council  authoritatively  decreed  the  absolute  wisdom  of  the 
Cathohc  chief.  Now  as  if  to  protest  still  further  against  any  modern 
ideas  of  liberty  of  thought  it  was  solemnly  declared  by  vote  of  a  Catho- 
hc council  assembled  in  the  Vatican  palace  at  Rome  that  when  the 
pope  spoke  as  the  head  of  the  Catholic  church  on  faith  and  morals 
he  could  not  err.  Thus  the  Catholic  church  placed  the  supreme 
crown  on  the  head  of  the  pope,  and  pronounced  him  endowed  with 
the  wisdom  of  God.  As  if  in  derision  of  this  decree,  the  fourth  event 
occurred  almost  at  the  same  moment  in  the  year  1870.  The  new 
kingdom  of  Italy  took  Rome  for  its  capital,  and  the  pope  lost  the 


Twenty-Six  rpj^^  q^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  Europe  133 

territorial  rights  that  he  had  held  for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
Temporal  authority  had  shpped  from  his  grasp  at  the  same  time  that 
his  spiritual  authority  was  declared  to  be  supreme. 

Note  3.  The  Changing  Age.  The  nineteenth  century  fulfilled  the 
promise  of  better  thinking  that  came  with  the  Renaissance  and  the 
Reformation.  The  shackles  were  falling  off  from  minds  that  had  been 
controlled  by  worn  out  ideas.  Science  was  making  discoveries  in 
many  fields  of  exploration,  and  upsetting  long  cherished  theories.  A 
new  social  life  was  coming  as  a  result  of  a  rapid  development  of 
industry.  Ideas  of  political  liberty  that  had  been  proclaimed  in  the 
French  Revolution  could  not  be  crushed,  and  they  began  to  be  heard 
again  all  over  Europe.  Now  and  then  a  revolution  broke  out  as  an 
escape  valve  for  the  popular  unrest.  It  became  increasingly  doubtful 
whether  absolutism,  either  in  state  or  church,  could  maintain  its  con- 
trol. The  United  States  proved  an  object  lesson  to  Europe  in  its  politi- 
cal and  religious  freedom.  Even  Socialism  found  a  place  in  the  thought 
of  many  in  Europe  at  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Note  4.  Revolt  from  Rome.  There  were  not  a  few  Catholics  in 
Germany  and  Austria  who  were  unable  to  accept  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility.  Many  hid  their  discontent,  bowed  their  wills  to  the 
will  of  the  church,  and  remained  loyal  to  its  organization;  but  there 
were  thousands  who  could  not  reconcile  this  latest  act  with  their  con- 
sciences, and  they  withdrew  and  organized  the  Old  Catholic  church, 
wliich  continues  as  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Catholic  unity.  For  this 
and  other  reasons  hundreds  are  drifting  away  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  those  countries  every  year,  and  are  joining  the  Old  Catholic 
or  even  Protestant  churches.  Many  more  are  losing  their  religious 
faith  altogether,  and  contenting  themselves  with  a  philosophy  of 
unbelief,  and  a  life  without  church  or  creed.  But  the  most  serious 
revolt  is  the  revolt  of  Catholic  states  from  any  dependence  upon  an 
ecclesiastical  ruler  outside  the  country.  This  phase  of  revolt  is  seen 
most  prominently  in  recent  years  in  France  and  Portugal. 

Note  5.  Disestablishment  in  France  and  Portugal.  The  French 
people  have  become  increasingly  irreligious  in  recent  years.  The 
French  nation  never  was  satisfied  with  the  concordat  of  1801  between 
Napoleon  and  the  pope.  In  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  century 
it  became  plain  that  the  Catholics  aimed  to  exercise  as  much  control 
as  possible  in  French  affairs,  and  a  wave  of  hostility  swept  government 
and  people  into  a  strong  anti-papal  movement.  The  government 
publicly  expressed  dissatisfaction  with  the  concordat.  Then  it  passed 
a  law  suppressing  the  monastic  orders  with  their  convents  and  schools, 


134  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


and  required  the  authorization  of  all  religious  associations.  Next  it 
broke  off  official  relations  with  the  papacy,  and  finally  ended  the  con- 
cordat. No  longer  would  the  French  government  support  the  clergy. 
The  state  took  possession  of  church  buildings,  but  allowed  them  to  be 
used  for  religious  purposes  under  the  direction  of  religious  associations. 
This  was  in  effect  the  nationaUzation  of  the  French  church.  Hence- 
forth France  and  not  the  pope  bad  control.  Similar  steps  have  been 
taken  in  Portugal  for  the  attainment  of  the  same  purpose,  and  all 
Catholic  Europe  seems  likely  to  be  organized  eventually  into  national 
churches  under  the  spiritual  leadership  of  the  pope,  but  with  only 
limited  ecclesiastical  authority  granted  to  him. 

Note  6.  The  Attitude  of  the  Pope.  Of  course  the  pope  and  his 
advisers  vigorously  protested  against  such  usurpation  of  authority  by 
the  state.  They  were  unyielding  in  their  demands  that  the  French 
•clergy  should  not  submit.  But  the  people  of  the  nation  supported  the 
French  government,  and  the  leaders  proceeded  to  carry  out  their  policy. 
Many  palaces  and  seminaries  formerly  used  by  the  church  have  been 
turned  into  schools  and  hospitals.  Pensions  are  paid  to  those  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy  who  apply  for  them,  but  the  support  of  religion  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant  is  otherwise  voluntary.  The  state  has  freed 
itself  from  a  foreign  master  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

Note  7.  Modernism  vs.  Medievalism.  There  have  been  two 
popes  since  Pius  IX  died  in  1878,  Leo  XIII  (1878-1903)  and  Pius  X 
(1903 — ).  Both  have  had  to  wage  a  battle  of  ideas  as  well  as  of  politics. 
The  Catholic  church  has  been  influenced  by  modern  ways  of  thinking. 
This  could  not  be  helped  but  the  church  has  set  itself  strongly  against 
the  modern  tide.  The  spirit  of  independence  has  asserted  itself  among 
clergy  and  laity.  The  pope  has  been  forced  to  condemn  independent 
opinions  in  religion.  He  has  taken  upon  himself  to  denounce  the  spirit 
of  liberalism  in  some  of  the  clergy  in  America.  He  has  thundered 
fiercely  against  socialism.  The  Catholic  church  stands  for  medieval- 
ism in  opposition  to  modern  thought.  Thomas  Aquinas  is  its  teacher 
of  theology.  Its  face  is  towards  the  past.  Its  ideal  is  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  pope.  Its  hope  of  salvation  is  in  the  sacrament  and 
the  priests.  It  is  stifled  by  the  atmosphere  of  liberalism.  In  spite 
of  the  greatness  of  its  past  its  influence  is  waning  in  competition  with 
the  ideas  of  this  age.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  represents  that 
which  has  been  rather  than  that  which  is.  It  has  had  its  day,  and  it 
survives  as  a  great  relic  of  a  great  past,  but  it  connot  control  the  future 
because  it  is  not  the  fittest  to  survive. 

Note  8.    Innocent  the  Sovereign  v^.  Pius  the  Prisoner.    Seven 


Twentysix  J,^^  qj^  ^^^  ^j^^  ^^^  ^^  EuTOpe  135 

hundred  years  ago  Innocent  III  was  the  acknowledged  sovereign  of 
Europe.  From  the  hills  of  Rome  the  law  went  forth  to  north  and  south 
alike,  and  it  was  a  law  to  be  obeyed.  The  Catholic  church  was  one 
great  and  united  body.  Its  glory  and  its  power  dazzled  a  continent. 
Its  dogma  controlled  the  thought  of  the  age.  It  could  with  equal  ease 
lay  its  strong  arm  upon  the  heretic,  or  call  forth  the  might  of  its  cru- 
saders against  the  Mohammedan  East.  The  pope  was  lord.  To-day 
Pius  IX  is  but  a  "  prisoner  in  the  Vatican.'*  No  longer  do  the  kings  of 
Europe  fear  his  decree.  When  united  Italy  demanded  the  city  of 
Rome  for  its  capital  forty  years  ago,  there  was  nothing  left  of  all  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  popes,  but  the  few  acres  to  which  the  popes 
since  then  have  chosen  to  confine  their  movements.  The  spiritual 
empire  of  the  ancient  church  is  falling  in  ruins.  Northern  Europe  is 
lost.  One  after  another  Catholic  countries  are  asserting  independence 
of  papal  control.  In  America  the  church  seeks  recompense  for  Euro- 
pean losses,  but  the  spirit  of  American  independence  is  not  in  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  Roman  authority.  Feebly  the  pope  protests  against 
the  modernism  of  an  age  to  which  he  does  not  belong,  but  unquestioned 
law  no  longer  goes  forth  from  Rome. 

Note  9.  Looking  Backward.  It  is  a  long  look  back  to  the  birthday 
of  Christianity,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  the  path  of  its  progress. 
It  had  a  Jewish  inlieritance,  but  a  Gentile  training.  It  went  to  school 
to  Greece,  but  in  its  maturity  it  took  on  Roman  forms.  It  was  con- 
trolled for  a  thousand  years  by  the  hand  of  a  Roman  pope.  But  a 
purer  faith  and  a  freer  life  came  with  Protestantism.  Francis  of 
Assisi  and  his  friars  preached  sacrifice  and  practised  social  kindness  as 
the  highest  Christian  ideal.  Waldensians  and  Mystics  learned  the 
meaning  of  spiritual  experience.  The  medieval  world  awoke  to  new 
consciousness  of  human  possibilities,  and  new  ideas  found  their  birth 
in  the  Renaissance.  Savonarola  and  Luther  thundered  against 
Catholic  corruption,  and  Germany  broke  away  from  the  Catholic 
faith  and  Roman  control.  The  new  movement  found  its  western 
center  in  Geneva,  and  Calvin  became  the  teacher  of  the  Protestants 
of  Switzerland,  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Great  Britain.  Through 
storm  and  stress  the  Protestants  of  those  countries  struggled  for  freedom 
from  the  past.  In  Germany  the  wars  of  religion  came  to  an  end  with 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  after  the  Swedish  king,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  had  sacrificed  himself  to  the  Protestant  cause.  Since  then 
the  hero  of  the  mission  field  has  contended  for  honor  among  men 
with  the  hero  of  the  battle  field.  Zinzendorf  and  Napoleon  represent 
the  two  types.     Ideals  have  changed  with  the  modernizing  of  ideas. 


136  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


The  old  church  still  faces  the  future  with  the  spirit  of  the  past,  but  it 
is  losing  the  confidence  of  thoughtful  men.  The  future  is  with  that 
type  of  Christianity  that  best  expresses  the  spirit  of  Jesus  in  religious 
thought  and  human  life. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  the  Lessons. 

1.  What  religious  groups  show  that  there  was  a  religious  awakening 
after  the  twelfth  century  ^ 

2.  How  did  the  people  Hve  in  country  and  town.? 

3.  Who  was  Martin  Luther? 

4.  What  did  Calvin  do  at  Geneva? 

5.  Explain  the  mixture  of  politics  with  religious  reform  in  France  and 
the  Netherlands. 

6.  Who  were  the  Jesuits? 

7.  Why  was  the  Thirty  Years'  War  important? 
8    Contrast  Zinzendorf  and  Napoleon. 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  was  the  effect  on  the  papacy  of  the  downfall  of  Napoleon? 


2.  What  four  events  mark  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX? 

3.  How  did  the  temporal  authority  of  the  pope  come  to  an  end? 

4.  In  what  senses  was  the  nineteenth  century  a  changing  age? 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  disestablishment  in  France. 

6.  What  are  the  names  of  the  last  two  popes? 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  modemisrD  f 


Twenly.six  rpj^^   Q^  ^^^   ^y  ^^^  ^^  EuVOpe  137 

8.  Why  does  the  CathoKc  church  oppose  modernism? 

9.  Contrast  Innocent  III  and  Pius  IX. 

10.  Mention  in  review  the  leading  facts  of  Cathohc  history. 


Reading  References. 
(1)   Newman:   Manual  of  Church  History^   II,   pp.   503-518.     {2) 
Cheetham:  Church  Hi'storij,  Modern  Period,  ch.  9.     (S)  Robinson  and 
Beard:  The  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  II,  pp.  166-172. 


PART  III 

Anglo-Saxon  Christianity 


Lesson    27.    THE    ENGLISH    REVOLT    FROM    ROME.    Henry 
Vni  and  the  Anglican  Church. 

Sources. — Statutes,  and  other  parliamentary  documents;  reports  of  the  His- 
torical Manuscripts  Commission;  chronicles;  tracts  and  various  pamphlets; 
letters;  More's  Utopia. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  Lesson  18  as  a  reminder  of  what  was  oc- 
curring on  the  Continent  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  in  England. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are: 
(a)  the  possibilities  of  the  new  king's  reign;  (6)  Henry's  lack  of  self-control; 
(c)  the  divorce  and  its  consequences;  {d)  the  plunder  of  the  monasttries. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  questions  for  class  discussion:  What  were  the 
qualities  of  Henry  VIII  that  are  weaknesses  in  a  king?  Do  the  acts  of  Henry 
prove  anything  as  to  the  proper  relation  of  the  church  and  the  state? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Write  a  sketch  of  250  words  on  religious  conditions 
in  Germany  and  England  in  about  1535.  (6)  Draw  a  map  of  England,  locating 
London,  the  capital,  and  Canterbury  and  York,  the  two  archbishoprics  of  the 
English  church,  (c)  Make  two  lists,  one  of  the  most  famous  cathedrals  of 
England,  and  the  other  of  the  most  noted  monasteries. 

Note  1.  When  Prince  Henry  Became  King.  Happy  were  the  people 
of  "  merrie  England  "  when  Prince  Henry  Tudor  became  king  Henry 
VIII  in  1509.  He  was  eighteen  years  old,  handsome  and  energetic. 
He  succeeded  to  a  father,  Henry  VII,  who  had  united  the  nation,  but 
who  was  tyrannical  and  miserly;  and  there  was  little  mourning  after  he 
was  gone.  W^ith  the  new  reign  it  seemed  as  if  a  new  day  had  dawned 
for  England.  Europe  was  basking  in  the  sunshine  of  the  Renaissance, 
and  England  was  near  enough  to  enjoy  its  influences.  The  young  king 
patronized  the  New  Learning.  Erasmus,  the  Greek  scholar  from  Hol- 
land, and  More,  the  courtier  and  philosopher,  were  his  friends.  The 
feuds  between  the  great  English  families,  that  had  vexed  the  country 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  seemed  at  an  end.  Only  seventeen  years  before 
this  Columbus  had  discovered  a  new  world  in  the  West,  and  Cabot  had 
coasted  the  eastern  shore  of  North  America  in  1498,  and  claimed  it  for 
the  British  throne.  Heaven  seemed  to  smile  on  the  fortunes  of  England 
and  her  youthful  king,  and  the  good  cheer  and  hope  of  the  time  are 
reflected  in  the  phrase  "  merrie  England." 

Note  2.  Religion  in  the  Realm.  When  Henry  VIII  became  king, 
all  Europe  was  Catholic.  Luther  had  not  yet  hurled  his  defiance  at  a 
corrupt  church.     But  throughout  the  West  there  was  discontent  and 

139 


140  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^"^o^ 

unrest.  The  church  had  not  cleansed  itself,  and  it  was  well  known  that 
reform  was  greatly  needed.  People  were  thinking  more  earnestly  about 
religion  than  they  had  thought  before.  The  influence  of  the  pioneers 
of  reform  was  being  felt.  Savonarola  had  only  just  been  silenced  in 
Florence.  Wycliffe,  long  since  dead,  still  spoke  to  the  heart  of  many 
an  Englishman.  A  hundred  and  fifty  years  earlier  he  had  lectured  and 
preached  at  Oxford,  had  issued  his  Bible  translation,  and  had  sent  out 
poor  priests  to  evangelize  the  country.  The  church  had  opposed  all 
this,  but  the  eft'ects  of  his  career  had  never  been  lost.  Now  John  Colet 
was  expounding  the  New  Testament  at  Oxford  in  a  way  that  brought 
out  a  new  meaning,  though  he  did  not  profess  to  be  a  reformer.  The 
seed  of  the  Reformation  was  germinating  in  English  hearts  to  spring 
up  from  the  soil  when  a  favorable  time  should  come. 

Note  3.  The  King's  Domestic  Affairs.  The  English  king  married 
for  his  queen  the  princess  Catherine  of  Aragon  in  Spain.  That 
nation  was  the  greatest  power  in  Europe,  and  it  was  much  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  England  that  such  an  alliance  should  take  place.  It  seemed 
to  add  to  the  good  fortune  of  the  nation.  For  many  years  all  went  well. 
The  king  was  lovable,  and  the  country  prospered.  The  Reformation 
broke  out  in  Germany,  but  the  Catholic  king  of  Catholic  England  wrote 
a  pamphlet  against  Luther,  and  the  grateful  pope  of  Rome  conferred 
upon  the  English  king  the  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith."  But  Henry 
was  losing  his  self-control.  He  was  puffed  up  with  pride  and  drunk 
with  power.  He  loved  to  rule.  As  a  colt  takes  the  bits  in  his  teeth, 
the  young  king  took  his  own  course.  He  cared  notliing  for  the  rights 
of  England,  nothing  for  the  expectations  of  the  people.  He  was  fond 
of  displaying  his  power  in  acts  of  tyranny.  He  was  passionate  as  well 
as  proud  and  headstrong.  He  yielded  to  liis  appetites  and  his  whims. 
He  fell  in  love  with  a  young  maid  of  honor  in  attendance  upon  the 
queen,  and  determined  to  divorce  his  wife  and  marry  Anne  Boleyn. 
In  most  disgraceful  fashion  he  set  ahout  securing  a  divorce  from  the 
pope,  who  alone  had  the  power  to  annul  the  marriage  with  Catherine. 
The  poor  queen  appealed  to  the  pope  and  humbled  herself  to  beg  favor 
from  the  king,  but  without  avail.  The  pope  delayed,  but  the  impetuous 
king  could  not  wait,  and  taking  the  matter  into  his  own  hands,  he  had 
the  divorce  issued  in  England  and  married  Anne. 

Note  4.  The  Revolt  from  Rome.  It  was  as  if  a  bombshell  had 
dropped  into  the  palace  of  the  pope.  Three  centuries  earlier  Pope  In- 
nocent III  had  quarreled  with  king  John,  but  had  been  able  to  carry 
out  his  own  policy.  Later  on  the  English  nation  had  declared  itself 
independent  of  the  political  power  of  the  pope.     But  only  a  few  individ- 


Tweruy-scv^a  fj^^  English  Revolt  from  Rome  141 

uals  had  ever  questioned  the  pope's  right  of  supremacy  in  rehgion. 
This  included  all  matters  relating  to  marriage,  for  marriage  was  one  of 
Ihe  sacraments  of  the  church.  Now  Henry  dared  to  defy  this  right  by 
marrying  Anne  without  papal  permission.  Then  the  king  in  masterful 
fashion  declared  that  he  himself,  and  not  the  pope,  was  the  head  of  the 
English  church,  and  the  English  Parliament  confirmed  it  by  an  Act  of 
Supremacy  in  1531.  By  tliis  high-handed  act  Henry  placed  England 
in  ecclesiastical  revolt  against  the  Roman  pope. 

As  if  tliis  were  not  enough  the  king  aimed  another  blow  at  the  church 
by  striking  down  Cardinal  Wolsey,  the  leading  Catholic  in  England  and 
his  own  counsellor.  He  had  grown  old  in  the  king's  service;  but  he  had 
been  slow  in  managing  the  divorce  correspondence  which  had  been  en- 
trusted to  liim,  and  Henry  tlu-ust  him  out  of  office.  Sadly  the  aged 
churchman  turned  away  from  the  royal  court,  and  almost  at  once  he 
sank  into  his  grave.  With  the  despair  of  many  a  one  who  has  felt  the 
ingratitude  of  kings,  he  cried: 

"  Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I  served  my  king,  he  would  not  in  my  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  my  enemies." 

Note  5.  The  Meaning  of  the  Revolt.  The  whim  of  a  passionate 
king  had  done  what  a  great  religious  reform  had  not  yet  been  able  to 
do.  Another  nation  of  the  North  had  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  the  papacy. 
But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  by  that  act  England  became  Protestant. 
Some  who  were  in  sympathy  with  Luther  and  with  the  ideas  of  Wycliffe 
secretly  rejoiced.  But  the  masses  of  the  English  people  were  loyal 
Catholics.  They  clung  to  the  old  faith;  they  gathered  as  before  in  the 
parish  churches;  they  still  looked  to  the  monasteries  for  charity  in 
poverty  and  sickness.  They  paid  their  hard-earned  pittances  into  the 
treasury  of  the  church,  and  looked  confidently  for  escape  from  purga- 
tory in  return.  King  Henry  himself  remained  Catholic  in  his  faith. 
The  meaning  of  the  revolt  was  simply  this:  that  the  Catholic  church  of 
England  was  now  to  regard  the  king  and  not  the  pope  as  its  supreme 
liead.  As  the  pohtical  revolt  against  the  pope  had  come  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  so  now  came  the  ecclesiastical  revolt  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  spiritual  revolt  which  should  make  England  Protestant 
was  still  in  the  future. 

Note  6.  The  Fate  of  the  Monasteries.  The  king  was  free  to  do  as 
he  pleased  with  the  English  church.  Parhament  had  proved  submis- 
sive, and  the  English  clergy  did  not  dare  to  dispute  the  will  of  the  king. 
Henry  cut  off  the  financial  resources  of  the  pope  in  England,  and  it  was 
forbidden  to  the  clergy  to  appeal  to  the  pope  from  an  English  decision. 


142  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Leaaon 


Parliament  made  all  these  a  part  of  the  law,  and  gave  all  church  ap- 
pointments to  the  king.  In  1536  Henry  took  a  step  that  angered  the 
church  and  grieved  many  of  the  people.  He  took  away  the  property 
and  the  privileges  of  the  monasteries.  There  was  good  reason  why 
some  of  these  monasteries  should  be  dissolved,  for  they  were  corrupt; 
but  many  of  them  conducted  their  affairs  properly  and  were  very  helpful 
to  the  common  people.  But  the  king  coveted  their  wealth,  and  they 
were  not  able  to  resist.  By  distributing  some  of  the  proceeds  to  his 
favorites  among  the  nobles  the  king  made  them  his  strong  friends,  and 
there  was  no  hope  that  the  monasteries  would  ever  be  restored.  The 
plunder  amounted  to  seventy-five  million  dollars  according  to  the  mod- 
ern value  of  money.  Eight  thousand  members  of  religious  orders  were 
turned  loose  upon  the  world,  and  eighty  thousand  persons  deprived  of  the 
aid  that  the  monasteries  had  supplied.  The  social  and  economic  con- 
sequences of  this  act  were  as  far-reaching  as  the  religious  results. 

Note  7.  The  Close  of  Henry's  Reign.  The  reign  of  Henry  VIII 
came  to  an  end  amid  no  such  splendor  and  joy  as  it  began.  He  had 
revelled  in  his  independence,  but  he  had  squandered  the  fortune  that 
his  father  had  acquired.  He  had  cared  little  for  the  large  majority  of 
his  subjects,  while  he  had  plundered  the  church  for  the  benefit  of  his 
favorites.  He  had  broken  many  of  the  bonds  that  bound  the  nation 
to  the  past,  and  had  raised  the  kingdom  to  a  position  of  honor  and  re- 
spect in  Europe;  but  he  had  broken  his  alliance  with  the  most  powerful 
nation  of  his  time.  His  country  was  disappointed  with  this  man  who 
had  promised  so  much,  but  had  shown  himself  lacking  in  the  qualities 
of  royal  greatness.  He  could  not  rule  England  well  because  he  could 
not  rule  himself.  He  can  never  be  called  a  great  king  because  he  failed 
to  achieve  greatness  as  a  man.  He  is  to  be  remembered  as  the  man  who 
freed  England  from  the  pope,  but  could  not  free  himself  from  the  control 
of  liis  passions  and  his  pride  of  power. 

Yet  Henry's  reign  brought  with  it  the  first  step  of  England  in  modern 
progress.  It  meant  much  that  England  was  trying  a  new  path  in 
religion.  At  first  it  might  not  seem  very  different  from  the  famihar 
way  of  Rome;  but  by  degrees  it  would  mount  to  a  liigher  level,  it  would 
enter  a  new  atmosphere,  and  the  people  would  feel  a  new  spiritual  vigor. 
King  Henry  was  an  incompetent  guide  to  stand  at  the  turnstije  and 
direct  the  nation  into  an  untried  path,  but  it  was  a  time  when  England 
greatly  needed  to  get  out  of  the  ruts,  and  in  spite  of  the  jolting  that  the 
nation  received  the  change  was  a  blessing  in  disguise.  It  could 
hardly  be  expected  that  a  radical  change  would  be  successful.  It  re- 
mained for  the  next  king  to  make  further  alterations. 


Twenty-men  f^g  English  Revolt  from  Rome  143 

Questions  on  Lesson  18. 

1.  How  did  the  Reformation  take  place  in  Germany? 

2.  Who  was  its  leader? 

3.  Who  was  the  German  emperor  at  that  time? 

4.  Did  it  have  any  effect  on  the  rest  of  Europe? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  favorable  circumstances  promised  a  successful  reign  for 
Henry  VHI? 


2.  Were  there  any  tendencies  away  from  the  Catholic  church  in 
England  ? 


3.  "Name  some  of  the  persons  conspicuous  in  the  thought  and  life  of 
England  at  the  outset  of  Henry's  reign. 


4.  How  did  Henry  show  his  real  character? 

5.  Explain  how  the  revolt  from  Rome  took  place. 

6.  Show  why  this  does  not  mean  the  introduction  of  Protestantism. 

7.  Tell  the  story  of  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

8.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  English  monasteries? 

9.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  royal  "policy? 

10.  Explain  the  failure  of  Henry  VIII  to  achieve  greatness. 


144  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"'°" 

Reading  References. 
(1)  Myers:  The  Moderji  Age,  pp.  94-108.     (2)  Andrews:  History  of 
England,  pp.   244-269.     {3)  Hulbert:    The   English   Reformation  and 
Puritanism,  ch.  3.     (4)  Lindsay:  History  of  the  Reformation,  II,  pp. 
315-350. 


Lesson    28.     HOW    ENGLAND    BECAME    PROTESTANT.    The 

Boy  King  and  his  Advisers. 

Sources. — State  papers  and  correspondence;  literary  remains  of  Edward 
VI;  Strype's  Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  and  Life  of  Cranmer;  chronicles  and  tracts. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson, 
and  be  prepared  to  answer  questions. 

2.  Read  over  the  lesson  story.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  helplessness  of  the 
boy  king;  (6)  the  religious  opinions  of  the  leaders  and  of  the  people;  (c)  the 
changes  in  worship;  (d)  the  Forty-two  Articles. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  discussion  in  class :  In  what  ways  does 
a  beautiful  church  building  help  to  make  a  person  religious.'' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  last  summary  is  copied  properly  into 
the  note-book.  (6)  Write  a  description  of  a  special  church  service  that  made 
upon  you  a  strong  personal  impression,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  early 
English  translations  of  the  Bible,  and  state  briefly  the  sj^iecial  characteristic  of 
each,     (d)  Draw  a  picture  or  diagram  of  a  Catholic  cathedral. 

Note  1.  Edward  the  Boy  King.  When  king  Henry  VIII  was 
dead,  his  leading  adviser,  who  is  known  in  history  as  Lord  Somer- 
set, locked  up  his  will,  and  hurried  off  to  arrange  the  future  with  the 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  found  the  children  of  the  late  king  in  his  own 
country  castle.  The  only  son  of  Henry  was  prince  Edward,  a  boy  of 
nine,  and  it  was  not  difficult  for  Somerset  to  gain  for  himself  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs.  Edward  was  well  informed  for  his  age,  but  of  course 
he  had  nothing  to  say  about  national  policies.  His  father  had  hoped 
that  public  aflfairs  would  continue  as  before,  and  had  arranged  for  a 
council  to  take  charge,  but  the  ambitious  Somerset  soon  crowded  out 
those  who  were  not  friendly  to  his  own  plans.  His  religious  policy  was 
to  make  England  Protestant.  Archbishop  Cranmer  had  become  a 
Protestant.  The  boy  king  had  been  educated  in  the  same  faith.  It 
was  easy  therefore  to  use  the  authority  of  the  king  to  bring  about  changes 
in  the  worship  and  creed  of  the  English  church.  For  this  reason  the 
reign  of  Edward  is  one  of  the  landmarks  in  Christian  history,  because 
it  was  during  that  time  that  the  revolt  against  the  pope  developed  into 
a  rejection  of  Catholicism. 

Note  2.  Actors  in  the  Drama  of  Reform.  England  became  a  stage 
on  which  was  enacted  one  of  the  prominent  acts  in  the  drama  of  the 


Twenty-eight  jJqk^  England  Became  Protestant  145 

Reformation.  The  first  great  act  of  that  drama  was  played  in  Germany, 
the  second  in  the  Swiss  city  of  Zurich,  and  the  third  at  Geneva.  Luther, 
Zwingh  and  Calvin  were  the  prominent  names.  But  at  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  in  England  there  was  displayed  yet  another  act 
in  the  mighty  movement  that  was  changing  the  religion  of  a  large  part 
of  Europe,  an  act  that  was  to  have  a  profound  impression  on  the  later 
history  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race.  The  leading  actors  were  Somerset 
and  his  successor,  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  Thomas  Cranmer, 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  regents  worked  mainly  in  their 
own  interest;  Cranmer  was  at  first  influenced  by  expediency,  but  he 
became  convinced  of  the  rightfulness  of  his  conduct,  and  was  staunch 
in  his  adherence  to  the  Protestant  cause.  Cranmer  cannot  be  admired 
for  great  strength  of  character,  as  Luther  and  Calvin  are  admired.  He 
was  always  greatly  impressed  by  royalty.  But  he  was  at  least  honest 
in  his  opinions,  and  he  was  the  chief  agent  in  bringing  about  the  changes 
that  established  Protestantism. 

Note  3.  Religion  and  the  People.  In  these  days  of  religious  free- 
dom it  seems  strange  to  think  of  a  king  and  his  advisers  altering  the 
religion  of  a  whole  nation.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  individ- 
uals here  and  there  were  moved  by  the  lively  changes  that  had  taken 
place  in  Germany,  or  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Calvin  and  his 
followers.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  Bible  translations  of  Tyn- 
dale  and  Coverdale  issued  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  led  a  considerable 
number  among  the  English  people  to  see  that  Catholicism  was  not  the 
true  type  of  the  Christian  religion.  But  it  must  be  supposed  that  much 
the  greater  part  of  the  English  people  were  perfectly  content  to  receive 
the  ministrations  of  Catholic  priests  and  to  trust  the  sacraments  for 
their  eternal  salvation.  Though  William  Tyndale  wrote  in  order  that 
the  ploughboy  might  know  the  true  gospel,  the  agricultural  laborer  took 
his  religion  without  objection  from  the  parish  church.  Though  the 
artisans  in  the  towns  may  have  remembered  the  poor  priests  of  Wycliffe, 
they  were  content  with  the  priests  that  they  met  in  their  own  streets. 
Though  thinking  men  in  the  universities  rejected  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
system  of  Rome,  the  average  citizen  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  was  loyal 
to  the  faith  of  the  past. 

Note  4.  Erastianism.  It  was  believed  generally  that  the  form  of 
religion  was  a  matter  to  be  determined  for  the  average  man  by  those  in 
authority.  Luther  had  accepted  that  idea  in  Germany  after  he  lost  his 
faith  in  the  peasants,  and  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  had  declared  definitely 
that  the  German  princes  should  decide  for  their  subjects  between 
Lutheranism  and  Calvinism.     When  Henry  VIII  declared  himself  to  be 


146  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^*"^'» 

the  head  of  the  church  in  England,  he  assumed  authority  in  matters  of 
religion,  and  Parliament  agreed  to  it  in  the  Act  of  Supremacy.  When 
the  council  of  regents  took  up  the  matter  of  the  religion  of  the  nation  at 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward,  they  acted  on  the  principle  that 
religion  was  a  department  of  government,  and  that  religion  must  be 
decided  upon  just  as  other  matters  of  national  policy  were  determined. 
The  church  was  the  machinery  of  government  for  carrying  out  what  was 
decreed  by  the  council.  This  was  the  theory  that  had  been  set  forth 
by  Erastus,  a  Swiss  theologian,  in  opposition  to  Calvin  and  his  theory 
that  the  government  was  the  agent  of  the  church.  This  theory  of  state 
control  as  accepted  in  England  became  known  as  Erastianism,  and  is 
opposed  to  the  Calvinistic  Presbyterian  idea  which  was  advocated  later 
by  many  of  the  English  Puritans. 

Note  5.  Acts  of  Protestant  Reform.  As  the  Erastian  theory  of 
state  authority  in  religion  was  accepted,  and  as  the  leaders  were  favor- 
able to  Protestantism,  reforming  acts  naturally  followed.  These  may 
be  grouped  under  four  heads:  (1)  the  abolition  of  certain  Catholic 
practices;  (S)  the  marriage  of  the  clergy;  {3)  the  use  of  the  English 
language  in  church  worship;  {^)  the  adoption  of  an  altered  creed.  The 
councillors  of  the  king  did  not  hesitate  to  make  these  changes,  though 
the  king  was  young,  and  though  the  church  itself  was  not  consulted. 
It  was  customary  for  churchmen  to  meet  in  an  assembly  called  convo- 
cation to  discuss  and  vote  upon  matters  relating  to  the  church;  but  in 
this  case  the  council  decided  what  should  be  done  and  left  it  to  the  con- 
vocation to  agree.  If  bishops  did  not  fall  in  with  the  changes  they 
could  expect  to  be  removed  from  office  and  perhaps  thrown  into  prison. 
In  this  high-handed  manner  Protestant  practices  were  introduced. 

Note  6.  Abolition  of  the  Old  Ways.  Cathohcs  were  accustomed 
to  beautiful  buildings  for  their  worship.  Churches  and  cathedrals  were 
ancient,  and  through  the  years  and  centuries  they  had  been  enriched 
with  the  offerings  of  devout  parishioners.  Richly  stained  glass  filled 
the  windows,  through  which  the  light  fell  in  prismatic  colors  and  helped 
to  produce  an  atmosphere  of  beauty  and  refinement.  Beautiful  frescoes 
and  paintings  adorned  the  walls.  Statues  and  crosses  in  the  niches 
were  visible  signs  of  the  veneration  of  the  people  for  Christ  and  the 
saints  of  the  church.  The  exercises  of  worship  were  suggestive  of 
reverence,  penitence  and  peace.  All  these  were  aids  in  bringing  the 
soul  into  the  right  attitude  toward  God.  It  was  not  strange  if  sometimes 
the  superstitious  worshipper  mistook  the  means  of  worship  as  of  su- 
preme worth,  and  venerated  the  image  or  the  sacrament  with  a  rever- 
ence that  was  due  to  God  alone. 


Twenty^eight  jj^y^  England  Became  Protestant  147 

The  thoroughgoing  Protestant  had  no  use  for  images  and  crosses,  for 
frescoed  walls  or  colored  windows.  To  him  they  were  signs  of  super- 
stition and  idolatry.  Holy  water  and  incense  were  relics  of  paganism 
and  its  incantations.  The  English  governing  council  proceeded  to 
place  them  under  a  taboo,  and  sent  commissioners  all  over  the  country 
on  a  royal  visitation  to  destroy  that  wliich  was  tabooed,  and  to  explain 
to  each  parish  that  these  practices  were  no  longer  to  be  a  part  of  religious 
worship.  Bishops  who  opposed  this  program  of  destruction  were 
thrown  into  prison,  and  the  people  dared  not  object. 

Note  7.  The  Marriage  of  the  Clergy.  Many  of  the  clergy  were 
wilhng  to  overlook  such  actions  as  these  because  of  the  second  provision 
of  England's  rulers.  This  was  permission  for  the  English  clergy  to 
marry.  In  the  early  Christian  days  there  had  been  no  prohibition  from 
marrying,  but  public  opinion  in  the  church  after  a  time  favored  a  single 
Hfe  for  those  who  were  in  church  orders.  All  monks  took  the  vow  of 
celibacy,  and  the  influence  of  monasticism  was  strong  in  favor  of  all 
the  parish  clergy  also  being  independent  of  family  cares.  So  it  became 
the  rule  that  the  clergy  should  not  marry.  But  a  single  life  is  not  a 
natural  life.  It  is  human  nature  to  seek  companionship  and  to  enjoy 
family  associations.  The  lack  of  it  led  to  evil  practices  among  the 
clergy,  and  from  the  beginning  Protestantism  declared  itself  against 
cehbacy  and  other  monastic  practices.  So  in  England  it  was  promptly 
decreed  that  clergymen  might  marry,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them 
were  glad  to  do  so. 

Note  8.  The  Use  of  the  English  Language  in  the  Churches.  From 
the  time  when  Rome  became  the  center  of  Christianity  the  Latin  lan- 
guage was  the  ecclesiastical  tongue.  It  was  recognized  as  the  oflBcial 
language  of  the  Catholic  church.  The  Latin  Vulgate  version  became 
the  accepted  version  of  the  Bible.  The  sacred  mass  was  performed  in 
the  same  language.  In  Latin  were  written  the  documents  of  the  church, 
the  bulls  of  the  pope,  all  papal  correspondence.  It  seemed  to  good 
Catholics  as  if  there  was  something  sacred  about  the  tongue  of  the  old 
Romans,  as  if  God  himself  were  better  pleased  with  creeds  and  pater- 
nosters in  Latin  than  in  English,  French  or  German.  Protestantism 
opposed  this  idea  among  other  revolutionary  acts  and  opinions.  Luther 
translated  the  Bible  into  German.  Calvin  put  his  Institutes  into  French, 
after  he  had  written  them  originally  in  Latin.  It  was  part  of  the  plan 
of  the  royal  council  in  England  to  abolish  Latin,  and  the  order  went 
forth  to  conduct  worship  in  the  language  of  the  gospel.  In  order  to 
make  this  possible  Archbishop  Cranmer  prepared  an  English  Book  of 


148  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^*'°" 

Comnioji  Prayer  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  Latin  Missal  and  Bredarij, 
and  English  translations  of  the  Bible  were  placed  in  the  churches. 

Note  9.  The  New  Creed.  It  remained  to  change  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  in  England  to  make  them  agree  with  the  best  Protestant 
thought.  In  this  the  teaching  of  Calvin  was  the  best  guide,  but  Luther- 
anism  contributed  to  the  Anglican  theology.  The  new  creed  was  put 
into  shape  by  Cranmer,  and  amended  by  others.  In  its  later  form  it 
was  written  in  forty-two  articles,  and  it  is  known  in  history  as  the 
Forty-two  Articles  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  A  few  years  afterward 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  they  were  reduced  in  number  to  thirty-nine, 
and  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  constitute  the  statement  of  faith  of  Ihe 
present  church  of  England.  Protestant  doctrines  were  explained  still 
further  by  homilies  that  were  distributed  to  the  churches,  and  by  a 
catecliism  prepared  for  the  instruction  of  the  people. 

Note  10.  Protestant  Forms  vs.  the  Protestant  Spirit.  Thus  Eng- 
land became  Protestant  as  far  as  the  decrees  of  the  government  could 
make  it  so.  The  spirit  of  the  people  was  still  Catholic.  They  did  not 
yet  understand  the  simple  gospel  of  divine  and  brotherly  love  that 
Jesus  taught.  They  needed  evangelists  who  would  go  through  the 
English  lanes  and  chat  by  the  English  hedges  about  the  plain  truths  of 
practical  religion  as  Jesus  had  done  in  Galilee  and  Judea.  But  the 
evangelistic  spirit  slumbered  in  England.  Here  and  there  an  individual 
churchman  saw  clearly  what  the  people  needed,  and  spoke  to  them  out 
of  a  warm  heart.  But  the  awakening  among  the  better  classes  of  Eng- 
lishmen waited  for  the  days  of  Puritanism,  and  the  rural  folk  were  not . 
evangelized  until  the  days  of  Wesley  and  the  Methodists.  And  so  the 
mandate  of  the  boy  king  Edward  did  not  change  the  real  religion  of  the 
people.  Before  his  body  was  in  its  grave,  England  began  to  turn  back 
to  the  Catholic  fold. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  How  did  it  happen  that  England  revolted  from  Rome.? 

2.  What  were  some  of  the  results.? 

3.  Did  England  become  Protestant  under  Henry  VIII.? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Wliy  is  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  one  of  the  Christian  historical 
landmarks.? 


2.  Who  were  the  leaders  in  the  English  Reformation? 


Twenty-eight  jJq^^  England  Became  Protestant  149 

3.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  people? 

4.  What  was  the  theory  as  to  the  relation  of  church  and  state? 

5.  What  were  the  principal  acts  of  reform? 


6.  What  were  the  reasons  for  and  against  the  destruction  of  images 
in  the  churches? 


7.  What  was  the  importance  of  the  new  rule  about  the  marriage  of 
the  clergy? 


8.  Explain  the  need  of  a  new  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  Forty-two  and  the  Thirty-nine  Articles? 
10.  Was  the  English  Reformation  completed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI? 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Myers:  The  Modern  Age,  pp.  108-111.     (2)  Andrews:  Histonj of 
England,   pp.   269-277.     (3)  Hulbert:    The   English   Reformation   and 
Puritanism,  pp.  127-148.     (^)  Lindsay;  History  of  the  Reformation,  II, 
pp.  351-367. 


150  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lettm 


Lesson   29.    THE    EPISCOPAL    CHURCH.    The    Anglican    Idea 
in  England  and  America. 

Sources. — The  Thirty-nine  Articles;  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer;  Hooker's 
Ecclesiastical  Polity;  Strype's  Memorials;  Hooks  and  Perry's  Documentary  His- 
tory of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1,  Review  the  summary. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  and  study  especially:  (a)  the  episco- 
pal idea;  (6)  the  High  and  Low  church  parties;  (c)  the  growth  of  Episcopacy  in 
America;  (d)  what  the  Episcopal  church  stands  for. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topics  for  special  class  discussion:  "What  is  a 
minister  or  priest  for?     How  does  the  episcopal  idea  agree  with  religious  liberty? 

4.  Prepare  for  the  note-book:  (a)  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson;  (6)  a  map 
of  England  showing  the  principal  Anglican  church  centers;  (c)  a  description  of 
the  Episcopal  Prayer  Book;  (d)  an  account  of  the  social  enterprises  of  a  promi- 
nent Episcopal  city  church,  like  Emmanuel  church,  Boston,  or  Saint  George's 
church  in  New  York. 

Note  1.  The  Church  of  England  an  Episcopal  Church.  At  last 
England  had  a  national  church,  and  that  national  church  was  Protes- 
tant. The  rulers  of  the  nation  had  decided  that  the  island  kingdom 
should  take  its  place  with  the  Germans,  the  Dutch,  and  the  people  of 
Geneva  in  their  adherence  to  the  ideas  of  the  Reformation.  To  be  a 
Catholic  was  to  trust  in  the  church  through  its  priests  and  its  sacra- 
ments to  make  men  right  with  God ;  to  be  a  Protestant  was  to  trust  to  a 
personal  faith  in  the  grace  of  God  through  Christ  for  salvation.  The 
average  Englishman  might  not  in  liis  thinlving  make  a  careful  distinc- 
tion, but  Protestantism  was  now  the  nominal  religion  of  the  realm. 
The  Protestant  churches  on  the  Continent  not  only  had  a  different  faith 
from  that  of  the  Catholic  church,  but  also  a  different  organization. 
With  slight  exceptions  the  bishops  gave  way  to  other  officers.  When 
the  English  church  became  Protestant  it  was  necessary  to  decide 
whether  the  changes  in  doctrine  involved  a  hke  change  in  administra- 
tion. It  was  agreed  that  the  papacy  should  be  subtracted,  but  that  in 
other  respects  the  ancient  church  of  England,  which  was  older  than  the 
papacy,  should  keep  in  its  former  simplicity  and  liberty  the  episcopal 
system  which  had  characterized  it  of  old.  So  the  church  of  England, 
commonly  called  Anglican,  is  an  Episcopal  church.  In  America  it 
received  the  name  Protestant  Episcopal  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Catho- 
lic church  on  the  one  hand  and  non-episcopal  churches  on  the  other. 
In  England  the  bishops  received  seats  in  Parliament,  but  also  had  their 
separate  convocation  for  the  discussion  of  religious  matters.  In  Amer- 
ica, of  course,  they  have  had  no  share  in  the  national  government, 
but  they  have  had  their  general  convention,  which  meets  every  three 
years. 


Twentynim  f^g  EpisCOpal  ChuTck  151 

Note  2.  The  Episcopal  Idea.  The  Episcopal  church  is  one  of  the 
prominent  denominations  among  modern  Protestants.  It  stands  for 
an  idea.  Back  of  every  organization  is  an  idea.  Back  of  every  re- 
Hgious  denomination  is  the  perception  of  a  bit  of  truth  that  others  have 
not  recognized  as  important.  Wliat  the  Episcopal  church  stands  for  is 
orderliness  in  faith,  in  worsliip,  and  in  administration.  For  this  reason 
it  makes  a  larger  use  of  creeds  than  some  other  churches.  For  the 
same  reason  it  employs  a  ritual  in  church  services.  With  the  same 
thought  it  exercises  oversight  and  authority  over  local  bodies  through 
the  bishop.  The  bishop  is  the  center  of  the  episcopal  system.  Tliis 
episcopal  idea  was  a  natural  characteristic  of  the  Anglican  church  of 
the  Reformation  because  it  was  characteristic  of  the  Catholic  church, 
and  the  Church  of  England  continued  the  tradition  of  Catholicism.  In 
the  eyes  of  a  Catholic  the  bishop  was  the  successor  of  the  first  Apostles. 
He  received  Apostolic  ordination  and  inlierited  the  Apostolic  authority. 
He  was  the  guardian  of  the  Apostolic  faith.  The  chief  Catholic  idea 
was  that  the  pope,  who  was  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  cliief  of  all  the 
bishops,  as  Peter  was  said  to  be  chief  of  the  Apostles.  In  the  church 
of  England  the  head  of  the  bishops  was  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
but  all  the  bishops  were  under  the  control  of  the  king  as  the  head  of  the 
nation.  So  under  Edward  VI  the  Church  of  England  became  Protes- 
tant in  its  doctrines,  but  it  remained  Catholic  in  its  organization. 

Note  3.  A  Conflict  of  Opinions.  There  was  one  element  in  Prot- 
estantism that  was  liable  to  make  trouble  for  an  episcopal  system.  The 
root  principle  of  Protestantism  was  individualistic;  in  it  was  involved 
the  idea  of  personal  freedom  in  religion.  Episcopacy  stood  for  order 
and  oversight,  and  in  this  was  involved  the  idea  of  authority.  It  was 
inevitable  that  there  should  be  radicals  and  conservatives  about  the 
source  and  the  amount  of  authority  in  the  Anglican  church,  and  that 
a  variety  of  opinions  should  produce  several  different  groups  in  the 
one  church.  First  of  all  there  was  the  High  church  party,  which  desired 
to  keep  as  much  as  possible  of  Cathohcism,  which  revered  authority, 
appreciated  ritualism,  and  maintained  the  divine  right  of  bishops 
descending  in  a  regular  succession  from  the  Apostles.  Those  who 
emphasized  the  right  of  the  government  to  control  the  church  were 
called  Erastians.  Then  there  were  many  who  believed  that  the  Ref- 
ormation had  not  gone  far  enough,  and  who  put  an  emphasis  on  evan- 
gelical doctrine.     They  formed  the  basis  for  the  Low  church  party. 

There  was  one  man,  Richard  Hooker,  who  sympathized  in  some 
respects  with  the  High  church  party,  but  who  made  reason  and  Scrip- 
ture the  basis  of  episcopal  authority  rather  than  Apostolic  succession. 


152  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

In  his  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity  he  made  the  most  notable  contribu- 
tion to  the  ecclesiastical  discussions  of  his  age,  and  liis  influence  was 
cast  on  the  side  of  a  breadth  of  view  and  a  tolerance  of  attitude  that  was 
greatly  needed. 

Note  4.  Episcopal  Extension  Abroad.  A  national  system  does  not 
easily  endure  transplanting.  The  Stuart  kings  of  Scottish  birth  tried 
to  extend  Episcopacy  from  England  to  Scotland,  but  the  Scottish  lords 
bound  themselves  by  a  covenant  to  defend  their  own  Presbyterian 
system,  and  the  Covenanters  were  successful  against  fire  and  sword. 
Ireland  was  too  strongly  Catholic  to  think  of  receiving  a  Protestant 
Episcopacy.  When  the  first  English  colonies  were  planted  in  America 
it  would  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  church  of  England  would  gain 
a  new  foothold  there.  The  Virginia  colonists  included  Anglican  clergy- 
men in  their  number,  and  so  did  others  of  the  Southern  plantations,  but 
in  the  North  the  colonists  organized  Separatist  churches.  There  was  no 
American  bishop  before  the  Revolution.  The  Bishop  of  London  was 
expected  to  look  after  the  religious  interests  of  the  colonists,  but  his 
oversight  was  not  so  careful  as  it  might  have  been,  and  among  the 
faithful  clergymen  were  not  a  few  of  another  sort.  Definite  organiza- 
tion for  a  foreign  propaganda  was  effected  in  England  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  two  societies  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century — the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel.  A  century  later  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
added  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  foreign  missionary  endeavor,  and 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years  has  had  a  most  honorable  history. 

Note  5.  The  Establishment  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States.  In  the  liistory  of  every  religious  communion  there 
are  stories  of  hardy  pioneer  clergymen  who  do  credit  to  the  denomina- 
tion to  which  they  belong.  Among  the  early  American  Episcopalians 
there  were  representatives  of  that  sort.  They  crossed  the  streams  on 
horseback,  scoured  the  open,  and  burrowed  through  the  forests  on  their 
ministry  of  devotion.  By  tidewater  and  in  the  back  country  they 
practised  their  own  type  of  religion  and  maintained  it  against  all  comers. 
But  there  w^ere  not  many  such,  and  they  lacked  the  strength  of  organiza- 
tion. The  Revolution  nearly  destroyed  American  Episcopacy.  It  be- 
came apparent  that  its  only  salvation  was  an  efiicient  American  organi- 
zation independent  of  the  church  of  England.  In  New  England  the 
Episcopal  church  was  strongest  in  Connecticut,  and  the  Connecticut 
clergy  asked  the  Anglican  church  to  consecrate  Seabury,  one  of  their 
number,  as  bishop.  This  local  request  of  a  small  number  of  clergy  was 
refused,  and  Seabury  had  to  content  himself  with  securing  an  irregular 


Tweniynine  ff^Q  EpiSCOpal  ChuTck  153 

consecration  at  the  hands  of  certain  Scotch  bishops  in  1784.  Three 
years  later  the  EngHsh  church  granted  the  blessing  of  Apostolic  succes- 
sion to  two  other  Americans,  and  so  came  into  existence  the  separate 
Protestant  Episcopal  church.  About  the  same  time  the  first  general 
convention  of  the  denomination  met  at  Philadelphia  and  adopted  a 
platform  of  principles.  Four  years  later  the  organization  was  com- 
pleted; a  liturgy,  prayer  book,  creeds,  and  canons  adopted;  and  the 
American  church  was  instituted  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  church 
of  England,  but  with  no  king  or  archbishop  at  its  head. 

Note  6.  Characteristics  of  American  History.  For  thirty  years 
the  growth  of  the  Episcopal  ^church  in  America  was  slow.  It  did  not 
seem  to  some  people  to  be  in  harmony  with  democratic  principles.  It 
was  too  English  in  antecedents  and  in  organization  to  be  thoroughly 
liked.  But  after  1830  it  took  on  new  life.  Its  missionaries  went  into 
the  West,  and  planted  Episcopacy  on  the  frontier.  There  were  organized 
efforts  among  Indians  and  negroes.  Foreign  missions  were  undertaken. 
A  theological  seminary  was  founded  in  New  York  in  1819,  and  other 
schools  were  established  in  the  South  and  West.  New  dioceses  were 
organized  as  the  denomination  extended  its  lines. 

Party  cleavage  in  the  church  proved  a  hindrance  to  harmonious 
growth.  A  group  that  feared  Catholic  influence  over  the  denomination 
withdrew  and  organized  the  Reformed  Episcopal  church  in  1873.  The 
Low  church  party,  with  its  evangelical  sympathies  and  its  low  estimate 
of  the  importance  of  episcopal  succession,  found  itself  often  opposed  to 
the  policies  of  the  High  church  party,  whose  sympathies  were  more 
Catholic.  Yet  the  Episcopal  church  has  overcome  its  difficulties,  has 
worked  out  important  results,  and  is  growing  very  rapidly  in  numbers. 
The  denomination  ranks  sixth  among  Protestants  in  the  United  States, 
with  about  nine  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  communicants.  Annual 
contributions  amount  to  more  than  eighteen  million  dollars.  The 
church  of  England  is  estimated  to  have  a  membership  of  two  and  a  half 
millions  in  England  and  Wales,  with  revenues  amounting  to  nearly 
twenty-nine  million  dollars. 

Note  7.  Social  Activity.  The  Episcopal  church  has  taken  a  promi- 
nent stand  in  favor  of  a  higher  social  welfare.  In  1889  a  pastoral  letter 
of  the  bishops  of  the  church  emphasized  the  importance  of  a  higher 
standard  of  public  morals  and  recognized  the  gravity  of  the  industrial 
situation.  Since  then  the  church  has  reiterated  these  statements,  has 
broadened  its  activities  in  the  building  of  hospitals  and  other  social 
institutions,  and  has  grappled  successfully  with  the  city  problems  of  its 
great  churches.     With   large   wealth   and   effective  organization  the 


154  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^*°^ 

Episcopal  cliiirclies  of  New  York,  for  example,  seem  likely  to  succeed 
in  solving  the  down-town  religious  problem  where  others  may  fail. 

Note  8.  Church  Union.  The  Episcopal  church  has  been  a  con- 
sistent leader  in  the  movement  towards  church  union.  While  it  was 
still  weak  in  America,  the  denomination  gave  earnest  attention  to  the 
subject,  and  now  that  it  has  grown  strong  it  is  assuming  the  leadership 
in  the  undertaking.  Part  of  its  platform  was  adopted  by  the  Lambeth 
Conference  of  1888,  which  in  England  united  all  Episcopalians  in  the 
"Quadrilateral,"  a  proposition  of  union  for  all  the  Christian  world. 
In  1910  the  Protestant  Episcopal  General  Convention  undertook  to 
secure  a  conference  of  all  Christian  churches  to  consider  questions  of 
faith  and  order,  and  this  effort  to  get  together,  properly  financed,  is 
being  pushed.  The  ideal  of  Christian  union,  difficult  of  realization  as 
it  may  seem,  is  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  founder  of  Chris- 
tianity himself,  and  is  worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  any  Christian 
denomination. 

Note  9.  "What  the  Episcopal  Church  Stands  for.  The  Episcopal 
church  to-day  includes  within  its  fold  a  great  variety  of  religious  types. 
The  High  churchman  lays  great  stress  on  the  importance  of  historic 
continuity  in  ecclesiastical  organization,  and  to  most  other  Protestants 
he  seems  to  magnify  the  importance  of  certain  external  manifestations 
of  religion.  The  "  Oxford  Movement "  of  the  nineteenth  century 
showed  a  distinct  tendency  towards  Rome  in  the  High  church  party  of 
England.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  Episcopalians  who  hold  to  the 
essential  experience  of  inward  spiritual  religion,  and  revere  the  words 
of  such  great  evangelical  preachers  as  Frederick  W.  Robertson  and 
Phillips  Brooks.  Besides  these  are  the  Broad  churchmen,  who  care 
less  for  forms  of  thought  or  organization  than  for  social  purity  and  the 
spirit  of  brotherly  love,  and  who  find  their  ideals  in  such  men  as  Maurice 
and  Kingsley.  The  typical  Episcopalian  is  he  who  recognizes  the 
authority  of  the  bishop,  worsliips  God  with  an  historic  and  dignified 
ritual,  gives  an  important  place  to  the  sacraments,  and  holds  to  the 
Nicene  Creed.  Whatever  the  narrowness  or  breadth  of  interpretation 
of  any.  individual,  he  remains  an  Episcopalian  because  the  episcopal 
idea  is  essential  to  his  religious  experience.  As  such  he  is  the  only 
natural  and  effective  mediator  between  the  Catholic  and  the  non- 
episcopal  churches  of  Christendom. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  When  did  the  English  church  become  Protestant? 

2.  What  were  some  of  the  changes  made? 

3.  Did  the  people  favor  these  changes? 


Twenty-nine  y/^g  EpisCOpal  ChuTck  155 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  is  the  difference  between  Catholic  and  Protestant  thought 
about  the  way  of  salvation? 


2.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  episcopal  idea. 

3.  How  did  English  Protestants  differ  in  their  opinions.? 

4.  Who  was  Richard  Hooker? 

5.  How  was  the  Episcopal  church  extended  to  America? 

6.  Wliat  have  been  the  characteristics  of  American  Episcopalians: 

7.  What  is  the  denominational  standing  of  Episcopacy? 

8.  Describe  the  Episcopalian  interest  in  church  union. 

9.  Explain  the  parties  in  the  church. 


10.  Define  the  fundamentals  of  American  Episcopacy  at  the  present 
time. 


156  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Articles  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  lltli  edition,  on  England^ 
Church  of,  and  Anglican  Communion.  {2)  Article  in  the  New  Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopedia  on  Episcopacy,  §  IV.  (3)  Allen:  Phillips  Brooks. 
(4)  Hodges:  The  Epnscopal  Church:  its  Doctrine,  Discipline  and 
Worship, 


Lesson  30.     QUEEN  MARY  AND  THE  SMITHFIELD  MARTYRS. 

The  Failure  to  Restore  Catholicism. 

Sources. — State  papers;  letters  of  Cardinal  Pole,  the  legate  of  the  pope; 
chronicles  written  by  a  resident  in  the  Tower  of  London;  contemporary  accounts 
of  affairs  in  England  and  of  the  refugees  on  the  Continent;  Strype's  Memorials; 
Foxe's  Acts  and  Monuments. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson,  and 
be  prepared  for  questions  in  the  class. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the  loyal 
heart  of  Mary  Tudor;  (b)  Mary's  Catholic  policy;  (c)  the  Smithfield  martyrs; 
(d)  Cranmer  and  his  fellow  sufferers;  (e)  the  effects  of  persecution. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topics  for  discussion  in  class :  What  constructive 
religious  poUcy  might  have  been  followed  by  Mary  with  a  good  prospect  of 
success?  Which  religious  changes  are  most  likely  to  be  permanent — those  that 
are  gained  by  radical  revolution,  or  those  that  come  by  a  more  gradual  process.'' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  last  summary  is  complete,  (b)  Enu- 
merate other  religious  persecutions  already  studied,  grouping  them  under 
Jewish,  pagan  and  Catholic,  (c)  Write  a  sketch  of  the  career  and  character  of 
Thomas  Cranmer.  [d)  Write  in  not  more  than  two  hundred  words  the  story 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

Note  1.  The  Heart  of  Mary  Tudor.  The  harsh  judgment  of  his- 
tory has  given  the  title  of  "  Bloody  Mary  "  to  the  half  sister  of  Edward 
VI  who  succeeded  him  on  the  English  throne.  It  is  an  epithet  that  has 
often  been  hurled  at  Englishmen,  as  if  it  were  characteristic  of  the 
English  people.  It  is  certainly  undeserved  by  queen  Mary  Tudor. 
She  lived  in  a  rough  and  cruel  age,  when  passions  were  hot  and  human 
life  was  cheap.  But  the  daughter  of  Catherine  of  Aragon  was  not  by 
nature  cruel.  She  was  a  woman  of  her  age,  and  the  victim  of  an  idea. 
The  prevalent  characteristic  of  her  nature  was  a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  her 
mother  and  her  faith.  To  understand  her  career  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  the  circumstances  of  her  life.  Her  mother  had  been  set  aside 
for  another  favorite  by  her  royal  father.  The  head  of  the  Roman 
church  in  whom  her  mother  trusted  had  been  repudiated  by  her  lawless 
father  for  his  own  headship.  The  monasteries  that  symbolized  the 
highest  sanctity  had  been  ruthlessly  destroyed.     Mary  herself  had  never 


Thirty  Queen  Mary  and  the  Smithfield  Martyrs  157 

been  sure  thai  she  would  be  allowed  to  live;  and  when  the  death  of  her 
brother  had  given  her  the  right  to  reign,  her  enemies  had  tried  to  sup- 
plant her  by  the  unfortunate  Lady  Jane  Grey.  When  at  last  the  Prin- 
cess Mary  became  queen,  she  burned  to  avenge  the  insults  to  her 
mother  and  the  Roman  church.  She  thrilled  with  a  desire  to  restore  to 
its  rightful  place  the  religion  that  all  Spanish  princesses  loved.  This 
ardent  desire  is  a  key  to  the  story  of  her  short  reign. 

Note  2.  The  Restoration  of  Catholicism.  To  strengthen  her 
policy  Mary  married  her  cousin,  Philip  II,  of  Spain,  who  liked  England 
little  and  Mary  less,  and  she  proceeded  to  carry  England  back  into  the 
Roman  fold.  Very  dutifully  the  members  of  Parliament  knelt  before 
Cardinal  Pole,  the  papal  legate,  and  confessed  their  sin  of  heresy. 
Very  sturdily,  however,  they  refused  to  surrender  the  monastic  lands 
which  king  Henry  had  distributed  to  his  friends  among  the  nobility. 
But  this  did  not  greatly  mar  the  satisfaction  of  all  over  this  act  of  recon- 
ciliation. No  prouder  moment  ever  came  in  the  life  of  the  unhappy 
queen  than  this  which  saw  the  former  wrong  reversed;  and  at  Rome 
there  was  unbounded  rejoicing  over  the  blow  to  the  cause  of  Protestan- 
tism in  Europe. 

Note  3.  How  the  Nation  Felt  about  it.  It  takes  more  than  a  royal 
proclamation  or  an  act  of  Parliament  to  change  the  religion  of  a  people. 
There  were  only  a  few  in  England  who  were  seriously  discontented 
with  Roman  Catholicism  when  Henry  revolted  against  the  control  of 
the  pope.  Only  the  more  intelligent  townspeople  sympathized  with  the 
efforts  of  king  Edward's  advisers  when  they  tried  to  bring  the  church 
of  England  into  line  with  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinist  churches  of  the 
Continent.  Most  of  the  English  people  were  slu-ewd  enough  to  see 
that  the  royal  council  was  selfish  in  its  endeavors  to  extend  Protestan- 
tism, and  when  their  controj  was  over  the  people  were  quite  willing  to 
see  the  restoration  of  the  Catholicism  in  which  they  had  been  brought 
up  and  in  which  they  really  believed.  The  city  of  London  was  the 
stronghold  of  the  newer  faith,  and  some  disturbances  occurred  there, 
but  the  clergy  and  nobles  were  sympathetic  with  the  queen  as  there  was 
no  attempt  to  restore  the  church  property  which  had  fallen  to  many  of 
them,  and  there  was  no  prospect  of  serious  opposition. 

Note  4.  A  Policy  of  Persecution.  If  queen  Mary  had  been  content 
with  the  restc^ation  of  friendly  relations  with  the  pope,  and  had  given 
her  time  and  strength  to  the  upbuilding  of  national  prosperity,  her  reign 
might  have  been  both  popular  and  prosperous.  But  her  temper  of 
mind  and  her  unhappy  experiences  prevented  this.     In  the  first  place 


158  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

she  was  a  most  loyal  Catholic.  She  would  personally  sacrifice  any- 
thing in  the  interests  of  her  faith:  why  should  she  not  sacrifice  the  bodies 
of  unbelievers  to  save  their  souls  from  eternal  loss?  It  was  a  task  given 
her  by  Heaven  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  true  church  in  a  critical 
period  of  English  history.  Like  Paul  on  the  way  to  Damascus,  she 
thought  that  she  was  doing  God  service  when  she  persecuted  heretics. 
In  the  second  place  she  was  most  unhappy  in  her  marriage  relations, 
her  health  became  broken,  and  she  became  irritable  and  a1  times  almost 
insane.  Under  the  spur  of  her  religious  zeal  and  her  mental  frenzy,  it 
is  not  strange  that  she  entered  upon  a  program  to  root  out  heresy  from 
her  dominions,  and  that  has  given  her  in  history  the  title  of  "  Bloody 
Mary." 

Note  5.  Imprisonment  and  Death.  The  queen  did  not  at  once 
bring  heretics  to  the  stake.  One  of  her  first  acts  was  to  remove  from 
their  positions  the  most  prominent  supporters  of  the  policy  of  Edward 
VI.  The  leading  bishops  were  deprived  of  their  dioceses  and  thrown 
into  prison.  It  is  difficult  in  these  days  of  prison  reform  and  merciful 
treatment  of  even  the  most  hardened  criminals  to  realize  what  it  meant 
to  be  imprisoned  in  the  days  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  of  England. 
Prisoners  of  all  sorts  were  crowded  together  into  filthy  dens,  sometimes 
plunged  into  underground  dungeons,  and  kept  there  without  trial  for 
months  and  years.  It  was  a  living  death  that  was  worse  than  burning 
at  the  stake.  Strong  men  came  out  of  such  an  experience  with  broken 
health  and  loss  of  reason.  Delicate  women  suffered  untold  agony  and 
contracted  incurable  diseases.  Even  children  suffered  with  the  rest. 
After  the  queen's  chief  enemies  were  thus  taken  care  of,  the  work  of 
punishment  and  death  began.  There  were  two  classes  of  people  who 
suffered  the  extreme  penalty  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  One  was  made  up 
of  ignorant  fanatics  who  had  learned  something  of  what  was  going  on 
in  the  Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  accepted  the  new  ideas  with 
enthusiasm,  and  clung  to  them  with  tenacity  whether  they  understood 
them  or  not.  Intolerant  themselves,  they  suffered  courageously  the 
attacks  of  an  intolerant  government.  The  other  class  was  composed  of 
leading  clergymen  who  counted  the  cost,  but  could  not  bring  themselves 
to  accept  the  Catholic  interpretation  of  the  ministry  or  the  mass. 

Note  6.  The  Smithfield  Martyrs.  One  of  the  first  to  die  was 
John  Rogers,  who  had  made  an  EngHsh  translation  of  the  Bible.  The 
scenes  at  his  death  were  ominous  of  the  effect  which  persecution  was 
likely  to  have  on  the  people.  Here  was  a  man  whose  conduct  had  been 
only  good,  and  when  he  went  to  his  death  the  people  cheered  him  "  as 
if  he  were  going  to  his  wedding."     Within  a  few  days  several  prominent 


Thirty  Queeii  Mary  and  the  Smithfield  Martyrs  159 

bishops  were  sent  to  die  at  the  stake  in  their  own  cathedral  towns. 
Most  of  the  executions  of  the  reign  were  carried  out  at  Smitlifield  just 
outside  London.  There  with  the  cattle  market  on  one  side  and  the  old 
Norman  church  of  Saint  Bartholomew  on  the  other,  fagots  were  piled 
about  the  stakes  in  a  large  open  space,  the  martyrs  were  fastened  in  the 
midst,  and,  wliile  crowds  of  people  watched  and  jeered,  their  bodies 
were  consumed  in  the  flames  that  bigotry  and  hate  had  kindled.  It 
was  a  punishment  as  barbarous  as  the  age  that  endured  or  applauded  it. 
Burning  was  thought  a  suitable  punishment  for  heretics,  for  it  sym- 
bolized their  future  suffering  after  death.  It  was  in  harmony  with  the 
ideas  of  the  age  which  called  for  torture  as  a  necessary  part  of  punish- 
ment. The  horrors  of  Mary's  reign  cannot  be  laid  entirely  upon  the 
person  of  the  queen.  They  were  inevitable  if  there  was  to  be  a  policy 
of  repression.  They  are  a  sad  commentary  on  the  religious  supersti- 
tion of  the  queen,  and  on  the  spirit  of  a  cruel  age. 

Note  7.  The  Three  Oxford  Martyrs.  Among  the  leaders  of  the 
English  Reformation  none  were  more  eminent  than  Cranmer,  who  as 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  had  been  the  chief  of  the  English  clergy, 
Ridley,  Bishop  of  London  in  the  reign  of  Edward,  and  Latimer,  Bishop 
of  Worcester  in  the  days  of  Ilem^y's  revolt.  All  three  were  tried  in 
Saint  Mary's  church  in  Oxford,  where  they  made  a  brave  defense. 
Of  course  they  were  condemned  as  dangerous  heretics.  Cranmer  was 
an  old  man  and  had  borne  the  honors  of  the  nation,  but  he  was  put  to 
the  torture  like  a  common  criminal,  and  in  a  moment  of  weakness  con- 
fessed that  he  had  been  at  fault.  His  enemies  were  determined  not  to 
be  cheated  of  their  prey,  however,  and  he  was  condemned  to  die.  Then 
as  he  stood  in  the  face  of  death  he  declared  liis  true  convictions,  and 
held  resolutely  in  the  fire  the  hand  that  had  signed  his  confession. 
Latimer  too  was  an  old  man  of  seventy,  but  he  encouraged  Ridley  to 
die  bravely,  and  they  also  went  honorably  to  their  doom.  There  stands 
in  Oxford  to-day  in  the  public  square  near  wliicli  they  died  a  "  Martyr's 
Monument  "  to  the  three  faithful  ones  who  went  through  the  fiery 
furnace  and  sealed  with  their  lives  the  faith  that  was  the  conviction  of 
their  souls.  As  often  before,  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  was  the  seed  of 
the  church,  and  thousands  of  good  Catholics  accepted  the  faith  of  these 
tlu'ce  because  of  their  sturdy  conduct. 

Note  8.  The  Effects  of  the  Persecution.  The  result  of  all  this 
severity  was  different  from  that  which  the  queen  anticipated.  It 
alienated  the  people  from  their  sovereign,  and  they  breathed  a  sigh  of 
relief  when  her  reign  was  over.  It  made  it  certain  that  this  violent 
reaction  towards  Catholicism  could  not  last.     Not  only  did  Protestau- 


160  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^^^°^ 

tism  come  again,  but  the  extremer  Puritanism  came  with  the  return  of 
exiles  who  liad  fled  for  safety  to  the  Continent,  who  felt  there  the  in- 
fluences of  Calvinism,  and  who  returned  after  Mary's  death  determined 
to  make  the  English  church  genuinely  Protestant.  It  led  the  people  to 
hate  such  absolutism  as  the  Tudor  sovereigns  had  shown,  and  it  had  a 
distinct  influence  toward  democracy. 

Note  9.  the  Death  of  the  Queen.  Queen  Mary  died  in  Novem- 
ber, 1558,  "  the  unliappiest  of  queens,  and  wives,  and  women."  She 
knew  that  her  husband  did  not  love  her,  and  that  her  people  hated  her. 
She  did  not  even  have  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  that  she  had  saved 
England  to  the  Roman  church.  She  had  sacrificed  everything  to  gain 
this  end.  She  died  broken-hearted  and  unwept.  History  has  con- 
demned her,  and  with  a  measure  of  justice,  for  she  made  many  suffer 
who  might  better  have  been  allowed  to  live.  But  in  this  more  tolerant 
and  enlightened  age  the  student  of  the  English  Reformation  may  well 
pity  the  ignorant,  lonely,  suffering  queen,  and  be  thankful  for  the  re- 
ligious freedom  and  religious  peace  that  has  come  about  tlirough  the 
unmeasured  suffering  of  other  days. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  does  the  Episcopal  church  stand  for? 

2.  What  is  its  organization  in  England  and  the  United  States? 

3.  Explain  the  three  parties  in  the  church. 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  the  circumstances  under  which  Mary  Tudor  came  to  the 
throne. 


2.  What  was  her  religious  policy.^ 

3.  Why  was  a  Catholic  policy  likely  to  succeed? 

4.  What  facts  help  to  explain  the  harshness  of  the  queen? 

5.  Tell  of  prison  conditions  in  those  days. 


Thirty-one  jJqh^  Scotlaud  BecaviG  Protestant  161 

G.  What  two  classes  of  people  would  not  be  forced  into  Catholicism? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  Smithfield  martyrs? 

8.  Why  were  heretics  burned  to  death? 

9.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Oxford  martyrs. 

10.  Mention  three  results  of  this  severe  policy  of  Queen  Mary. 


Reading  References. 

{1)  Vi^YYj:  Ilistorij  of  tlic  Reformation  in  England,  c\i.  \^.  {2)  Lind- 
say: History  of  ilic  Reformation,  II,  pp.  368-384.  {3)  Green:  History 
of  the  English  Pcoyle,  II,  Book  IV,  cli.  2. 


Lesson   31.     HOW    SCOTLAND   BECAME   PROTESTANT.    The 

Trials  of  John  Knox. 

Sources. — English  and  Scotch  state  papers;  letters  of  Mary  Stuart;  writings 
of  John  Knox;  various  histories  of  the  church  of  Scotland;  the  Book  of  Common 
Order  of  the  church  of  Scotland. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Review  the  last  lesson  by  means  of  the  sum- 
mary, and  be  ready  for  class  questions. 

2.  Read  over  the  lesson  story,  and  note  especially:  (a)  how  Protestantism 
came  to  Scotland;  (6)  the  fortunes  of  John  Knox  before  his  return  to  Scotland; 
(c)  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation;  {d)  the  religious  changes;  {c)  the  fate  of  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion:  Might  not  John 
Knox  have  served  his  country  better  if  he  had  done  what  he  could  to  purify 
the  Catholic  church  of  Scotland  instead  of  stirring  up  a  divisive  Reformation? 
When  is  it  necessary  to  take  sides  in  a  religious  or  moral  reform? 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  the  summary. 
(6)  Draw  a  map  of  Scotland  to  show  Edinburgh,  Saint  Andrews,  Leith,  and 


162  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

Glasgow,  (c)  Write  a  short  account  of  the  travels  of  John  Knox,  {d)  Write 
a  description  of  the  life  of  a  galley  slave,  as  it  is  given  in  Wallace's  Ben  Hur, 
or  Jean  Marteilhes's  Memoirs  of  a  Protestant. 

Note  1.  A  French  Galley  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Off  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland  between  Saint  Andrews  and  Dundee  a  French  galley 
lay  at  anchor.  In  it  a  galley  slave,  so  ill  that  he  seemed  likely  to  die, 
looked  away  to  the  shore.  "  Do  you  see  that  place  over  yonder," 
asked  a  friend.  "  Yes,  I  know  it  well,"  was  the  reply,  "  for  I  see  the 
steeple  of  that  place  where  God  first  in  public  opened  my  mouth  to  his 
glory,  and  I  am  fully  persuaded,  how  weak  that  ever  I  now  appear, 
that  I  shall  not  depart  this  life  till  that  my  tongue  shall  glorify  his  godly 
name  in  the  same  place."  This  slave  with  the  sturdy  soul  was  John 
Knox,  the  leader  of  the  Scotch  Reformation.  He  had  been  captured 
by  the  French  as  a  Protestant  insurgent,  and  after  the  harsh  practices 
of  the  times  he  had  been  made  a  galley  slave,  but  in  spite  of  bodily 
weakness  he  had  faith  to  believe  that  his  work  as  a  Protestant  was  but 
just  begun. 

Note  2.    When  Protestantism  first  Came  to  Scotland.    Up  to  the 

sixteenth  century  Scotland  was  on  the  border  of  civilization.  The  high- 
land clans  maintained  feuds  with  one  another  and  with  the  lowlanders 
from  one  generation  to  another.  Catholicism  was  the  religion  of  the 
land.  The  modern  age  had  not  yet  dawned.  Several  circumstances, 
however,  favored  religious  changes.  Nowhere  in  Europe  were  the 
Catholic  clergy  more  corrupt.  The  church  was  completely  under  the 
political  control  of  the  nobles.  If  the  people  ever  awoke  to  a  realization 
of  these  conditions  there  might  be  an  outbreak  of  religious  indignation. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  several  universities  had  been  founded,  and 
these  stimulated  thought.  Then  by  1525  Lutheran  books  found  their 
way  into  the  country,  and  presently  Protestant  pioneers  were  preaching 
the  doctrines  of  reform.  Among  these  were  Patrick  Hamilton,  a  Scotch 
nobleman,  who  preached  for  some  months  but  was  burned  at  the  stake 
in  1528,  and  George  Wishart,  an  enthusiastic  preacher  of  the  new 
doctrines,  who  suffered  similarly  at  Saint  Andrews.  The  most  im- 
portant achievement  of  Wishart  was  the  conversion  to  Protestantism 
of  John  Knox,  who  was  destined  to  be  the  Calvin  of  Scotland. 

Note  3.  Progress  of  the  Reformation.  When  Wishart  died  and 
Knox  was  carried  off  to  France,  it  seemed  as  if  Scotch  Protestantism 
had  been  choked  in  the  cradle.  The  government  was  friendly  to  the 
old  church,  and  there  was  no  leader  of  the  Protestants  remaining.  As 
in  other  countries  religion  was  mixed  up  with  politics.  If  friendship 
with  Protestants  could  help  an  ambitious  ruler,  then  Protestants  were 


Thirty-one  jj^^  Scotland  Became  Protestant  163 

treated  less  harshly;  if  not,  they  were  condemned.  Scotland  was 
always  at  odds  with  England,  so  that  when  England  changed  the  form 
of  religion  one  way,  Scotland  threw  its  weight  on  the  other.  Scotland's 
continued  national  policy  was  friendship  with  France,  and  marriage 
alliances  cemented  the  two  nations.  France  was  Catholic,  and  the 
prospects  were  that  French  iniiuence  would  succeed  in  keeping  Scotland 
the  same.  Yet  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  made  its  way  steadily  in 
the  land.  There  was  great  dissatisfaction  with  the  Scotch  clergLy;  there 
was  political  rivalry  among  the  nobles  that  led  some  to  set  Protestan- 
tism over  against  Catholicism;  and  Lutheran,  Calvinist  and  Anglican 
influences  all  had  their  part. 

Note  4.  Knox  on  the  Continent.  Meantime  John  Knox  had  been 
released  from  his  floating  prison,  had  spent  two  years  in  the  north  of 
England  as  a  reformed  preacher,  and  then  had  gone  to  the  Continent 
when  Mary  began  to  persecute  Protestants.  He  visited  one  place  after 
another,  waiting  for  better  conditions  in  England,  and  making  the 
acquaintance  of  some  of  the  Protestant  leaders.  When  he  was  con- 
vinced that  he  would  not  be  able  to  return  soon  to  England  or  Scotland, 
he  went  to  Geneva  to  make  his  home  in  the  city  of  Calvin.  He  found 
himself  in  close  sympathy  with  the  great  reformer  of  Geneva,  and 
Calvin  recommended  him  as  minister  to  a  company  of  English  refugees 
who  had  fled  from  th§  persecution  of  queen  Mary  and  had  settled  in 
'the  German  city  of  Frankfort.  Protestants  in  their  extreme  individual- 
ism did  not  agree  well  in  those  days,  and  Knox  did  not  get  on  well  with 
his  Frankfort  congregation.  He  left  them  shortly,  and  after  a  brief 
stay  in  Geneva  and  a  hurried  visit  to  Scotland,  where  he  married,  he 
returned  to  Geneva  and  became  pastor  of  a  company  of  English  exiles, 
ministering  to  them  in  a  building  under  the  shadow  of  Calvin's  own 
church  in  the  city. 

Note  5.  The  Lords  of  the  Congregation.  While  Knox  was  absent 
the  Protestants  of  Scotland  had  not  been  idle,  and  though  the  presence 
of  their  leader  was  made  impossible,  they  were  influenced  by  his  advice. 
He  had  counselled  them  to  bind  together  the  leading  Protestants  of  the 
country,  and  for  this  purpose  a  number  of  nobles  and  other  influential 
men  met  at  Edinburgh  and  united  in  a  covenant  "  to  maintain,  set 
forward,  and  establish  the  most  blessed  Word  of  God  and  his  congrega- 
tion." From  this  act  they  became  known  as  Lords  of  the  Congregation. 
All  these  nobles  who  hoped  to  preserve  their  own  rights  against  the 
crown  leaned  toward  the  Protestant  side.  Scotland  had  for  years  been 
ruled  by  a  French  princess,  a  member  of  the  Catholic  family  of  the 
Guises,  in  the  name  of  her  daughter  Mary.     This  daughter  was  married 


164  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^««" 

to  the  royal  lieir  of  France  the  year  after  the  Scotch  lords  had  made 
their  covenant.  It  looked  as  if  together  the  Catholics  of  France  and 
Scotland  would  destroy  altogether  the  liberties  of  Scotland.  In  the 
midst  of  this  crisis  Knox  returned  to  take  a  part  in  the  regeneration  of 
his  country. 

Note  6.  Changes  in  State  and  Church.  Both  sides  appealed  to 
arms.  Knox  joined  the  reformers,  but  not  to  fight  with  material 
weapons.  The  government  outlawed  him,  but  he  proceeded  about  the 
country  winning  scores  to  the  Protestant  faith.  In  such  strenuous 
times  he  did  not  hesitate  to  speak  boldly,  and  the  passions  of  the  people 
took  fire.  Insurgents  burst  into  the  churches  and  monasteries,  broke 
up  the  furniture,  defaced  the  walls,  and  seized  property.  The  people 
at  Edinburgh  wanted  him  for  their  minister,  but  he  was  not  safe  in  the 
capital.  After  a  few  months  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation  were  strong 
enough  to  make  terms  with  their  enemies,  and  while  the  danger  was  by 
no  means  over  the  Protestants  were  free  to  institute  reforms. 

As  the  English  Parliament  voted  the  desired  changes  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VIII  and  Edward  VI,  so  the  Scotch  Parliament  put  through  the 
reforms  of  the  Protestants  in  1560.  The  first  step  was  to  abolish 
Catholicism  and  all  relations  with  Rome.  The  second  was  to  put  in 
force  a  policy  of  intolerance  against  Catholics.  The  third  was  to  adopt 
a  Reformed  Confession  of  Faith,  which  with  .the  Book  of  Discipline 
furnished  a  basis  for  Scotch  Protestantism.  Calvinism  was  the  ac- 
cepted faith,  and  Presbyterianism  the  form  of  organization  of  the 
purified  church  of  Scotland.  These  changes  were  not  dependent  upon 
the  will  of  the  crown.  The  youthful  Mary  was  away  from  Scotland, 
residing  in  France  as  queen  of  that  country.  She  was  a  good  Catholic, 
but  that  made  no  difference  in  the  action  of  the  Scotch.  Their  religious 
reformation  was  virtually  a  political  revolution  as  well,  and  though 
Mary  was  still  in  name  queen  of  Scots,  in  reality  she  was  almost  without 
power. 

Note  7.  John  Knox  vs.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  While  in  Geneva 
Knox  had  thundered  against  the  English  queen  Mary  Tudor  in  a 
pamphlet  entitled  First  Blast  of  the  Trum'pet  against  the  Monstrous 
Regiment  of  Women.  The  ideas  set  forth  were  not  at  all  in  harmony 
with  those  of  the  queen  of  Scots;  and  when  she  ceased  to  be  the  queen 
of  France  at  the  death  of  her  young  husband  in  the  very  year  of  the 
religious  changes  in  Scotland,  and  returned  to  pacify  her  own  Scotch 
plains  and  highlands,  she  found  herself  speedily  at  odds  with  Knox. 
The  queen  did  not  hesitate  to  have  mass  celebrated  for  her  in  Holyrood 
Palace  in  her  capital  city  of  Edinburgh,  but  John  Knox,  farther  up  the 


Thirty-one  ffgy^  Scotland  Became  Protestant  165 

street  from  his  pulpit  in  Saint  Giles's  church  declared  on  the  next  Sun- 
day that  one  mass  .was  more  hateful  to  him  than  ten  thousand  hostile 
soldiers.  Mary  invited  him  to  the  palace  to  reason  with  her  about 
these  tilings,  but  the  stern  reformer  was  so  harsh  that  he  left  her  in  tears. 
Like  an  old  prophet,  he  denounced  her  as  a  modern  Jezebel,  condemned 
the  gaiety  of  her  court,  and  declared  the  rights  of  the  people  of  Scotland 
to  be  greater  than  those  of  any  sovereign.  At  first  she  had  gained  the 
sympathy  of  the  people,  but  her  two  unfortunate  marriages  after  her 
return  from  France  alienated  them,  and  six  years  later  she  was  forced 
to  abdicate. 

Note  8.  Death  in  Captivity.  Queen  Mary  of  Scotland,  less  than 
thirty  years  of  age,  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  loveliest  and  one  of  the 
most  hated  of  women,  fled  from  her  second  throne  to  her  cousin  Eliza- 
beth of  England.  A  Catholic  queen,  she  was  forced  to  sue  for  favor  in 
a  Protestant  land.  She  had  fallen  far  short  of  her  ambition.  In  the 
beauty  and  promise  of  girlhood  she  had  married  a  French  prince,  and 
before  she  was  twenty  she  became  queen  of  one  of  the  proudest  nations 
of  Europe.  In  her  own  right  she  was  queen  of  Scotland,  and  English 
Catholics  looked  upon  her  as  the  rightful  heir  of  Mary  Tudor  instead 
of  Ehzabeth.  It  was  a  dazzling  prospect  for  a  Scotch  girl.  Then  in 
close  succession  misfortunes  had  fallen  upon  her:  the  loss  of  her  posi- 
tion in  France  through  the  death  of  her  husband,  the  acts  of  rebellion 
in  her  own  Scotland,  and  now  the  crowning  act  of  disloyalty  that  drove 
her  from  her  throne.  Elizabeth  received  her  kindly  in  England,  but 
Mary  became  the  center  of  more  than  one  attempt  to  place  her  instead 
of  Elizabeth  on  the  English  throne.  The  only  safe  place  to  keep  her 
was  in  prison,  and  at  last  another  conspiracy  drove  the  English  queen 
to  sign  a  death  warrant  for  her  execution,  and  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
was  no  more. 

Note  9.  The  Leadership  of  John  Knox.  If  the  unfortunate  queen 
wins  sympathy  for  her  hard  fate,  the  Scotch  leader  wins  admiration  for 
the  thoroughness  of  liis  work.  "  He  did  not  shrink  from  the  hardest 
tasks.  It  was  he  who  fasliioned  the  Confession  after  the  model  of 
Geneva.  It  was  he  who  organized  the  Scotch  church  on  a  Presbyterian 
basis  by  means  of  a  Book  of  Discipline.  It  was  he  who  established 
Protestant  worship  according  to  a  Book  of  Common  Order.  It  was  he 
who  had  most  to  do  with  the  adoption  of  all  these  measures  of  reform 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Scotland. 
Knox  did  not  Kve  to  see  the  death  of  the  queen  who  had  fled  to  England. 
He  toiled  on  for  years  in  infirmity,  impressing  himself  upon  his  nation 
by  the  "  union  of  tenderness  and  strength,  of  humor  and  seriousness, 


166  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

of  geniality  and  severity,  of  manful  sympathies  and  godly  fervor  "  that 
characterized  him,  and  he  died  at  last  feared  by  his  enemies  and 
cherished  faithfully  by  his  friends,  earning  well  the  eulogy  pronounced 
at  liis  grave:  "  Here  lies  one  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man," 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  the  Preceding  Lessons. 

1.  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  revolt  of  England  from  the  control 
of  the  pope? 

2.  What  happened  to  the  monasteries? 

3.  Who  made  the  English  church  Protestant? 

4.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  new  English  Episcopacy? 

5.  What  was  the  religious  policy  of  Mary  Tudor? 

6.  What  was  the  favorite  method  of  punishing  heretics? 

7.  Who  was  the  most  illustrious  victim  of  the  persecutions  in  Eng- 
land? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  is  John  Knox  introduced?  ^ 


2.  Give  reasons  why  Protestantism  found  a  foothold  in  Scotland. 

3.  Who  were  some  of  the  pioneers? 

4.  What  conflicting  influences  were  at  work  in  the  nation? 


5.  How  was  Knox  occupied  in  the  years  when  he  was  away  from 
Scotland  ? 


6.  Who  were  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation? 


7.  Name  some  of  the  changes  in  the  church  of  Scotland. 


Thirty-two  Presbyterians  in  History  167 

8.  Tell  the  story  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots. 

9.  Describe  the  relations  of  Knox  and  the  queen. 

10.  What  does  Scotland  owe  to  John  Knox? 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Walker:  The  Reformation,  pp.  313-334.  (2)  Beveridge:  Makers 
of  the  Scottish  Church,  ch.  7.  (3)  Walker:  Great  Men  of  the  Christian 
Church,  pp.  255-269.     (4)  Cowan:  John  Knox. 


Lesson   32.    PRESBYTERIANS   IN   HISTORY.    Their  Principles 
and  Their  Practice. 

Sources. — The  Constitution  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  the  United  States 
of  America;  Proceedings  of  councils;  Records  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  and  Acts 
of  the  General  Assembly;  Macpherson's  Preshyterianism;  Macphail's  The  Pres- 
byterian Church. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Study  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  noting  especially :  (a)  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  Presbyterians;  (6)  the  fortunes  of  the  church  of  Scotland;  (c)  the  estab- 
lishment of  Preshyterianism  in  America  and  its  record  here;  {d)  the  present 
organization  of  American  Presbyterians. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  What  can  a  great  de- 
nomination like  the  Presbyterians  do  to  improve  the  relations  of  capital  and 
labor? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  written 
out.  (&)  Prepare  lists  of  ten  countries  in  which  American  Presbyterian  mis- 
sions are  located,  and  of  ten  schools  of  higher  learning  in  the  United  States. 
(Consult  the  article  on  Preshyterianism  in  the  Encyclopedia  Brifannico,  11th 
edition.)  (c)  Write  a  brief  sketch  on  one  of  the  following  topics:  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Free  Kirk  ministers  from  the  Scotch  Assembly;  or  the  work  of  the 
American  Presbyterians  for  labor  in  the  cities  and  for  rural  communities. 
(Consult  for  the  last  topics  pamphlets  issued  by  the  Presbyterian  Home  Mission 
Board,  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York.) 

Note  1.  The  Origins  of  Presbyterianism.  The  Presbyterian  de- 
nomination is  one  of  the  strong  Protestant  bodies  of  the  United  States: 


168  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'^'^^ 

it  is  the  established  church  of  Scotland  and  the  Netherlands,  and  it  has 
been  prominent  in  the  history  of  other  countries.  It  is  believed  that 
Presb  jterianism  has  a  basis  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  the  life  of  the 
primitive  church,  but  the  Presbyterian  denomination  finds  its  modern 
origin  in  Geneva,  where  Calvin  gave  to  the  Protestants  of  modern 
Europe  liis  theological  ideas  and  certain  practices  regarding  discipline 
which  have  continued  as  a  convenient  model.  It  is  not  often  that  one 
man  has  so  widespread  and  permanent  an  influence  in  religion  as  John 
Calvin.  He  may  well  be  called  the  father  of  Presbyterianism.  In  the 
city  of  Geneva  it  was  impossible  to  work  out  such  a  complete  system  as 
is  needed  by  a  national  church,  but  Calvin's  work  of  organization  was 
promptly  completed  in  France  and  Scotland. 

Note  2.  Fundamental  Ideas.  It  was  natural  that  Presbyterians 
everywhere  should  accept  the  doctrinal  standards  of  Calvin,  and  so 
wherever  a  Presbyterian  is  found,  one  expects  to  discover  a  Calvinist. 
For  many  years  English-speaking  Presbyterians  took  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  adopted  by  the  English  Parliament  in  1648,  as 
their  unchanging  standard  of  Calvinistic  faith;  but  modern  ways  of 
looking  at  religious  truth  have  modified  the  Calvinism  even  of  Presby- 
terians. But  the  pecuharity  of  Presbyterians  is  not  their  Calvinistic 
doctrine,  for  other  denominations  have  shared  that  with  them,  but  it  is 
their  system  of  government.  Discipline  and  organization  were  most 
important  matters  in  the  mind  of  Calvin,  and  it  seemed  to  him  that  if 
discipline  was  to  be  effectual  it  must  be  in  the  hands  of  a  few  officers. 
On  the  basis  of  this  idea  a  system  of  church  councils  or  courts  has  been 
worked  out,  which  is  typical  of  Presbyterian  organization  everywhere. 

Calvin  laid  the  basis  of  it  in  Geneva  by  organizing  the  local  church 
officers  into  a  consistory  or  local  council,  which  should  have  charge  of 
all  cases  of  discipline.  When  the  French  Protestant  church  was  organ- 
ized in  1559  the  system  was  completed  with  the  organization  of  a  graded 
series  of  four  church  courts.  Calvin's  consistory  was  the  local  court. 
Next  above  it  was  the  presbytery,  which  was  the  council  or  court  for  a 
wider  district,  and  was  composed  of  ministers  and  elders  from  the  local 
churches  in  the  district.  Above  this  was  the  synod,  including  all  Pres- 
byterians in  a  province;  and  highest  of  all  was  a  general  assembly  of 
representatives  of  all  Presbyterians  in  the  nation.  The  Presbyterian 
system  is  a  representative  system,  and  stands  between  the  Episcopal 
system  in  which  the  bishop  exercises  authority,  and  the  Congregational 
system  in  which  the  members  of  the  local  congregation  have  final 
authority.  It  is  a  system  in  harmony  with  the  modern  spirit  of 
representative  democracy. 


Thirty-two  PresbyteHans  in  History  169 

Note  3.  The  Progress  of  Presbyterianism.  It  was  natural  that  the 
Protestantism  of  the  Netherlands  should  be  influenced  by  the  French 
and  the  Swiss.  The  Reformed  church  of  the  Netherlands  accepted  the 
Calvinistic  faith  and  organized  itself  on  the  Presbyterian  basis.  So  did 
the  churches  of  the  Rliine  valley  in  Germany.  John  Knox  organized 
the  church  of  Scotland  on  Cahdn's  model,  and  that  church  carried  out 
most  completely  the  organization  and  the  spirit  of  Calvin  that  lay  back 
of  it.  This  was  not  accomplished  without  a  hard  struggle  with  Episco- 
pacy, but  the  Scotch  won  their  own  way  even  against  Stuart  kings  of 
united  England  and  Scotland  through  the  devotion  of  the  Covenanters 
who  had  bound  themselves  together  for  the  defense  of  their  religious 
liberties.  The  church  of  Scotland  adopted  the  liturgy  of  Knox's  church 
in  Geneva,  and  for  its  declaration  of  faith  the  Westminster  Confession. 
It  had  the  same  church  courts  as  in  France,  but  the  local  consistory  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  kirk  session.  An  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
the  system  of  the  Presbyterians  into  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
but  it  was  unsuccessful.  Presbyterianism  has  never  been  strong  there. 
It  found  its  way  to  America  tlu'ough  several  different  channels,  but 
American  Presbyterianism  gained  its  strength  from  the  Scotch  and 
Scotch-Irish. 

Note  4.  The  Church  of  Scotland.  When  there  is  one  fixed  church 
in  a  land,  two  things  are  almost  sure  to  happen.  One  of  these  is  that 
certain  indi\T[duals  wdll  disHke  the  restraint  that  is  exercised  by  such  a 
church,  and  \\dll  dissent  from  its  rules  of  faith  and  order.  The  other  is 
that  there  will  be  friction  between  the  civil  government  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical government.  Both  happened  in  Scotland.  Other  denomina- 
tions gained  a  foothold  in  Scotland,  and  even  witliin  the  Presbyterian 
church  there  was  so  much  difference  of  opinion  that  parties  were  formed. 
Then  the  question  of  patronage  troubled  the  churches.  Civil  authori- 
ties paid  the  salary  of  the  minister,  and  lay  patrons  often  decided  who 
the  minister  should  be.  Yet  the  churches  could  hardly  be  expected  to 
like  such  a  plan. 

Scotch  Presbyterians,  therefore,  passed  through  seasons  of  wordy  war- 
fare, and  true  religion  suffered  much,  for  it  was  hardly  to  be  supposed 
that  spiritual  experience  would  be  fostered  by  such  matters.  When 
Scotchmen  were  not  in  debate  over  these  questions,  they  were  fond  of 
dwelhng  in  thought  and  word  on  the  doctrines  of  Calvinism.  At  last 
in  1843  the  Scotch  church  split,  mainly  over  the  question  of  patronage, 
and  four  hundred  and  twenty-one  ministers,  led  by  Thomas  Chalmers, 
gave  up  their  livings,  sacrificed  their  state  support  and  their  connection 
with  the  church  which  had  come  down  from  the  Reformation,  and 


170  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^«*<>" 

organized  the  Free  Kirk.  This  secession  led  to  wiser  measures  in  the 
parent  body,  and  in  1874  patronage  was  abolished  and  the  people 
allowed  to  elect  their  own  ministers,  though  the  church  continues  to  be 
the  established  church  of  the  land. 

.  An  earher  revolt  against  some  of  these  same  evils  had  led  to  the 
organization  of  a  separate  body,  known  later  as  the  United  Presby- 
terians, and  in  1900  this  group  united  with  the  Free  Kirk  to  form  the 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Because  of  acts  like  these,  there  are 
to-day  in  Scotland  two  large  and  several  smaller  Presbyterian  bodies, 
all  \drtually  agreeing  in  matters  of  faith  and  practice,  but  existing  in- 
dependently. The  separation  has  brought  about  improvements  that 
would  hardly  have  been  possible  in  one  organization.  Both  of  the 
large  bodies  are  prosperous  and  growing.  They  have  modified  the 
harshness  of  the  old  Calvinism;  they  are  interested  in  missions  and 
social  service;  and  they  excel  in  scholarly  attainments.  Altogether 
they  have  about  seventeen  hundred  congregations  and  one  milhon,  two 
hundred  thousand  members. 

Note  5.  Presbjrterian  Emigration.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury northern  Ireland  was  colonized  by  Protestants  from  Great  Britain. 
Among  these  was  a  considerable  number  of  Scotch  Presbyterians. 
Later  in  American  colonial  days  many  Scotch-Irish  descendants  settled 
among  the  foothills  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  became  some  of  the  sturdiest 
citizens  of  the  United  States.  From  the  European  continent  came 
Presbyterians  from  the  Rliine  lands  and  from  France,  and  of  course,  the 
Dutch  had  no  small  share  in  American  settlement.  Local  churches 
were  planted  here  and  there,  and  the  first  presbytery  was  organized  in 
Philadelphia  in  1706;  ten  years  later  tliis  developed  into  a  synod.  The 
strength  of  Presbyterianism  was  in  the  middle  colonies  and  among  the 
hills.  Presbyterians  were  not  welcome  in  New  England,  though  the 
organization  of  the  Congregationalists  was  semi-Presbyterian  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  As  the  country  expanded  toward  the  West,  the 
Presbyterians  shared  in  the  religious  gains. 

Note  6.  The  Record  of  American  Presbyterians.  When  the 
American  Revolution  broke  out,  there  were  seventeen  presbyteries  and 
one  hundred  and  seventy  ministers  in  the  colonies.  These  were  loyally 
American,  and  they  suffered  much  from  the  war.  When  it  was  over 
the  denomination  reorganized  its  forces,  and  held  the  first  meeting  of  a 
General  Assembly  of  all  Presbyterians  in  the  country.  When  settlers 
began  to  push  rapidly  into  the  interior,  the  Presbyterians  and  Congrega- 
tionalists formed  a  Plan  of  Union  in  1801,  by  which  they  agreed  to 
work  together  in  planting  new  churches.     This  plan  lasted  for  twenty- 


Thirty-two  Presbyterians  in  History  171 

seven  years.  During  this  period  a  revival  swept  through  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  and  many  converts  required  more  preachers  than  could  be 
educated.  The  Presbyterian  church  laid  great  stress  on  education,  and 
objected  to  the  appointment  of  untrained  ministers  in  the  district. 
But  local  opinion  was  otherwise,  and  presently  the  Cumberland  presby- 
tery withdrew  from  the  parent  body,  and  organized  a  new  denomination, 
which  continued  as  the  Cumb^land  Presbyterians  until  a  reunion  was 
brought  about  in  1906. 

From  time  to  time  other  differences  arose  in  the  main  body  over  such 
questions  as  a  general  or  limited  atonement,  agreement  or  partial  dis- 
agreement with  the  terms  of  the  Westminster  Confession,  the  sanction 
of  slavery  in  the  South,  and  revivalism.  These  differences  of  opinion 
produced  denominational  schisms,  and  some  of  the  Scotch  divisions 
have  also  been  perpetuated  here.  The  most  important  of  these  divi- 
sions are  the  United  Presbyterians,  and  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
church  which  separated  from  the  main  body  at  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War. 

Like  the  Presbyterians  across  the  sea,  the  Americans  have  grown 
more  liberal  in  interpreting  doctrine,  and  are  interested  in  missions  and 
social  welfare.  In  organizing  to  meet  social  needs  in  city  and  country 
the  Presbyterians  have  been  leaders  among  Protestant  denominations 
in  America.  They  emphasize  the  importance  of  education,  and  are 
well  equipped  with  colleges  and  seminaries.  Altogether  the  Presby- 
terians in  this  country  number  about  two  million  members,  and  are 
growing  steadily  in  numbers  and  in  strength. 

Note  7.  How  the  Presbyterians  are  Organized  in  the  United 
States.  Each  church  is  composed  of  those  who  accept  the  Calvinistic 
faith  in  a  sovereign  God  and  in  the  Bible  as  a  sovereign  guide,  and  who 
confess  a  distinct  purpose  to  follow  Jesus  Christ.  The  minister  is  the 
spiritual  teacher,  and  a  board  of  elders  elected  by  the  church  oversees 
discipline.  The  minister  and  elders  constitute  the  session,  which  de- 
cides all  cases  of  discipline,  but  a  member  under  discipline  may  appeal 
to  a  higher  church  court.  The  session  also  receives  members  into  the 
church,  and  appoints  delegates  to  the  presbytery. 

The  presbytery  is  composed  of  the  pastor  and  one  elder  as  repre- 
sentatives from  each  church  in  a  district.  This  body  has  control  over 
the  ministers  and  churches  in  the  district  instead  of  allowing  them  to 
be  the  supreme  judges  of  their  own  affairs.  It  is  this  organization  that 
has  given  the  distinctive  name  to  the  denomination.  Synods  and  the 
general  assembly  are  organized  like  the  presbytery,  but  have  oversight 
over  larger  territory,  and  rank  higher  in  authority  than  the  pregbj'tery. 


172  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

The  general  assembly  elects  a  moderator  as  its  head,  and  this  is  a  great 
honor;  but  he  has  no  episcopal  authority  and  liis  office  is  not  permanent. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  Scotch  Reformation? 

2.  By  whom  was  he  opposed? 

3.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  queen?  ^ 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  Presbyterianism  originate? 


2.  What  peculiarities  distinguish  the  Presbyterians? 

3.  Show  how  the  Genevan  organization  developed  into  a  full  system. 

4.  Describe  the  progress  of  Presbyterian  ideas  in  Europe, 

5.  Tell  something  of  the  difficulties  of  the  church  of  Scotland. 

6.  Explain  how  there  came  to  be  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States. 


7.  What  are  some  of  the  different  Presbyterian  bodies  in  Scotland 
and  in  the  United  States? 


8.  What  are  the  interests  of  present  day  Presbyterians? 

9.  How  is  the  denomination  organized  in  America? 

10.  Define  Plan  of  Union,  Kirk  session,  and  Westminster  Confession 


Thirty-three  fji^  English  Puritaus  173 

Reading  References. 
{!)  Macphail:    The   Presbyterian  Church.     {2)  Tliompson:  History 
of  the  Presljyterian  Churches  in  the   United  States,  ch.  17.     {3)  Article 
on  Presbyterianism  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  11th  edition. 


Lesson  33.    THE  ENGLISH  PURITANS.     OHver   CromweU  and 

his  Men. 

Sources. — Cromwell's  letters  and  speeches;  Pepys'  Diary;  Strype's  Memo- 
rials; journals  and  memoirs;  constitutional  documents;  large  numbers  of  tracts, 
pamphlets,  letters  and  manuscripts. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  religious  desires  of  the 
Puritans;  (6)  the  king  James  Bible  translation;  (c)  Puritan  insurgency;  {d)  the 
spirit  and  method  of  Cromwell. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  class  discussion:  When  is  a  revolution 
justified.?  Would  the  religious  wishes  of  the  Puritans  have  been  sufficient 
reason  for  going  to  wa.r? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  in  proper 
form.  (6)  Write  a  sketch  comparing  Cromwell  and  Washington,  (c)  Draw  a 
map  of  England  to  show  how  the  country  was  divided,  and  mark  the  principal 
battle  fields,  (d)  Draw  a  map  of  New  England  to  show  the  principal  Puritan 
settlements,  (e)  Make  a  list  of  five  English  translations  of  the  Bible,  and  state 
how  each  came  into  existence. 

Note  1.  Origin  of  the  English  Puritans.  In  all  great  social  changes 
there  are  always  a  few  people  who  see  farther  ahead  than  the  crowd, 
and  are  not  satisfied  with  the  extent  of  the  changes  that  take  place. 
When  England  was  made  Protestant  there  were  some  who  wanteU  to 
sweep  away  all  the  Catholic  customs,  like  the  peculiar  vestments  of  the 
clergy,  the  custom  of  kneeling  when  receiving  the  sacrament,  and  other 
symbols.  These  radical  Protestants  were  in  special  danger  when 
queen  Mary  restored  Catholicism,  and  many  of  them  fled  to  Protestant 
cities  of  the  Continent.  It  was  to  one  such  group  that  John  Knox  min- 
istered at  Geneva.  There  they  came  under  the  influence  of  Calvin. 
At  one  time  they  asked  him  if  they  ought  to  use  the  prayer  book  of 
king  Edward,  and  he  gave  an  unfavorable  reply  because  it  needed 
greater  purity.  This  desire  for  reform  in  the  interests  of  purity  in 
religion  gave  to  these  radical  Protestants  the  name  of  Puritans. 

Note  2.    The  Puritans  and  the  Established  Church  of  England. 

As  it  was  the  theory  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  of  the  Middle  Ages 
that  all  Christians  must  belong  to  the  one  church  and  accept  the  com- 


174  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Leason 


mands  of  its  head,  so  it  was  the  theory  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury that  all  the  Christian  people  of  England  must  belong  to  the  one 
Anglican  church  and  accept  the  rules  laid  down  by  its  head,  the  English 
sovereign.  Most  of  the  Puritans  were  willing  to  agree  to  these  terms, 
hoping  to  reform  the  church  within  the  organization.  But  there  were 
some  who  did  not  believe  that  the  government  ought  to  control  the 
church.  They  had  no  objection  to  one  national  church,  but  it  ought 
not  to  be  governed  by  the  king  or  be  administered  by  bishops.  They 
wanted  to  introduce  the  system  of  Geneva  where  the  state  assisted  the 
church  and  where  there  were  no  bishops  to  control  the  ministers.  This 
was  the  Presbyterian  party  in  the  Anglican  church,  and  was  led  by 
Thomas  Cartwright,  one  of  the  able  leaders  of  the  English  Puritans. 
Besides  the  episcopal  Puritans  and  the  Presbyterians  there  were  a  few 
who  believed  that  each  congregation  should  be  a  complete  and  inde- 
pendent church,  and  they  are  known  in  English  history  as  Independents 
or  Separatists,  and  from  their  congregations  came  the  modern  English 
and  American  Congregationalists  and  Baptists.  They  received  no 
sympathy  from  Puritans  or  Presbyterians,  and  some  of  them  suffered 
death  for  their  radicalism. 

Note  3.  The  Puritans  and  the  Sovereign.  The  Puritans  of  every 
type  were  obnoxious  to  the  rulers  of  England.  The  first  desire  of  the 
sovereign  was  to  have  peace  and  uniformity  in  religion,  and  anything 
that  looked  like  independent  thinking  or  practice  was  frowned  upon. 
After  Mary's  death  her  sister  Elizabeth  restorecj  Protestantism,  but  she 
was  more  conservative  than  Edward  VI  and  his  advisers,  and  she 
would  tolerate  neither  Puritans  in  the  Anglican  church,  nor  Presby- 
terians who  wanted  a  different  church.  She  had  many  a  tiff  with 
Thomas  Cartwright,  as  Mary  of  Scotland  had  with  John  Knox,  but  she 
had  her  way  as  long  as  she  lived. 

When  Elizabeth  died  in  1603  she  left  no  direct  heir  to  the  English 
throne.  Her  Aunt  Margaret  had  married  into  the  royal  family  of 
Scotland,  and  James,  the  son  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  became  king  of 
England  as  well  as  of  Scotland.  Puritan  ministers  hastened  to  meet 
him  on  his  way  to  the  English  capital,  but  in  a  conference  at  Hampton 
Court  he  told  them  plainly  that  his  interests  were  with  the  regular 
church,  and  the  only  promise  that  they  could  secure  from  him  was 
a  new  Bible  translation.  This  attitude  of  opposition  to  ecclesiastical 
reform  continued  for  the  next  forty  years  through  the  reigns  of  James 
I  and  his  son  Charles  I. 

Note  4.  The  King  James  Bible.  The  Bible  translation  author- 
ized by  James  was  the  most  important  product  of  his  reign.     There  had 


.  Thiriy.thre»  f^g  English  Puritans  175 

been  several  earlier  English  translations,  and  in  particular  the  Genevan 
Bible,  a  Puritan  edition  published  on  the  Continent.  This  was  the 
first  to  divide  chapters  into  verses.  It  had  explanatory  notes,  and  in 
other  ways  was  an  improvement  over  its  predecessors.  But  it  could  hot 
command  the  confidence  of  most  Anglicans,  and  there  was  need  of  a 
revision  that  would  be  acceptable  to  all  the  people  of  the  realm.  So 
king  James  authorized  a  new  version,  and  appointed  competent  schol- 
ars to  perform  the  task.  They  made  use  of  previous  translations,  and 
studied  carefully  the  best  of  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  and 
in  1611  produced  an  Authorized  Version  that  has  remained  the  standard 
Bible  of  English-speaking  Protestants  until  recent  years.  It  was  also 
the  basis  of  a  great  many  translations  by  foreign  missionaries.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  seemed  desirable  to  have  a 
revision  of  king  James'  version  .because  older  manuscripts  had  been 
discovered  and  critical  scholarship  had  become  more  exact  than  was 
possible  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  For  this  reason  English  and 
American  revisers  undertook  the  work,  and  by  1885  had  completed  a 
Revised  Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  This  version  is 
winning  its  way  gradually  into  popular  favor. 

Note  5.  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Some  of  the  most  inde- 
pendent of  the  Puritans  were  deeply  religious  men.  Richard  Baxter 
was  a  minister  who  had  a  powerful  religious  influence  over  his,  parish- 
ioners, and  labored  for  Christian  union  and  sympathy  in  an  age  that 
was  narrow  and  selfish.  His  Sainfs  Everlasting  Rest  was  one  of  the 
most  prized  books  of  Puritan  literature.  John  Bunyan  is  better  known. 
During  an  imprisonment  of  twelve  years  in  Bedford  Jail  for  conscience 
sake,  he  commenced  Pilgrim's  Progress,  a  religious  allegory  which, 
when  completed,  began  to  influence  greatly  the  common  people,  and 
which  eventually  came  to  stand  next  to  the  Bible  in  the  estimation  of 
thousands  of  evangelical  Christians.  In  scholarly  circles  it  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  productions  of  English  authors  with  respect  to  the 
purity  of  its  literary  style. 

Note  6.  Puritan  Insurgents.  When  the  English  Puritans  found 
that  they  could  not  hope  for  royal  favor,  and  that  all  evidences  of  in- 
dependence brought  punishment,  they  concluded  that  no  course  of 
action  remained  to  them  but  to  go  into  politics,  and  force  the  king  to 
promote  reforms.  Parliament  was  supposed  to  have  a  share  in  the 
government  of  both  state  and  church,  and  they  might  be  able  to  push 
through  parliamentary  reform.  But  the  Stuart  kings  were  so  deter- 
mined to  have  their  own  way,  that  they  proceeded  to  rule  without  Par- 


176  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Leaaon 


liament.  But  in  spite  of  the  emigration  to  America  of  thousands  of 
discouraged  Protestants,  the  spirit  of  insurgency  grew. 

At  length  king  Charles  was  compelled  to  summon  ParHament  to 
provide  means  for  quelhng  a  Scotch  disturbance.  The  insurgents  in- 
sisted first  that  existing  abuses  should  be  stopped.  They  brought  to 
trial  the  leading  agents  of  the  king.  They  proceeded  to  pass  laws  that 
would  force  the  king  to  reform  his  policy.  Presently  they  grew  so 
bold  that  the  king  interfered  and  demanded  the  arrest  of  five  of  the 
most  conspicuous  advocates  of  popular  liberty.  He  even  went  himself 
to  the  House  of  Parliament  and  stationed  his  guard  at  the  door  to  pre- 
vent their  escape.  But  they  had  heard  a  rumor  of  what  was  about  to 
happen,  and  had  fled.  When  the  king  made  his  way  into  the  room,  he 
looked  over  the  assembly  for  the  five  men,  and  when  he  did  not  see 
them  he  said,  "  Ah!  I  see  the  birds  have  flown,"  and  bafiled,  went  his 
way. 

The  people  of  London  were  in  an  uproar  because  the  king  had  vio- 
lated the  privileges  of  Parliament  in  entering  their  assembly  with  an 
armed  force.  They  began  to  take  sides  for  and  against  the  king. 
They  formed  military  companies,  and  marched  to  and  fro  with  great 
show  of  zeal.  As  was  to  be  expected  the  church  and  the  nobility  favored 
royal  authority,  and  with  them  ranged  themselves  the  less  important 
gentry  who  hoped  to  gain  advantage  from  their  loyalty.  On  the  other 
side  were  the  tradesmen  and  many  of  the  farmers,  and  the  Puritans 
everywhere.  The  strength  of  the  Puritan  party  was  always  in  the 
sober  and  sturdy  middle  class  on  whom  rested  the  prosperity  of  the 
nation. 

Note  7.  Fighting  for  Freedom.  It  soon  became  plain  that  liberty 
could  be  won  only  by  the  sword.  The  king  rallied  his  supporters,  and 
the  war  began.  The  Parliamentary  insurgents  had  no  lack  of  volun- 
teers, but  they  needed  training.  There  was  one  man  in  the  parlia- 
mentary army,  a  staunch  Puritan,  who  was  wise  enough  to  see  that 
improvement  was  needed  on  his  side  if  the  cause  of  popular  rights  and 
true  religion  was  to  win  in  the  bitter  struggle  that  he  foresaw.  This 
man  was  Oliver  Cromwell.  Pie  knew  that  the  king's  army  was  inspired 
by  a  sense  of  honor  and  loyalty  to  the  sovereign;  over  against  this  spirit 
he  thought  it  necessary  to  appeal  to  loyalty  to  God  and  the  truth.  He 
believed  that  even  the  common  men,  rustics  and  apprentices,  could  be 
drilled  into  a  brave  and  powerful  force,  if  only  they  were  animated 
with  that  spirit.  But  he  had  better  material  than  that.  There  were 
young  men  of  Puritan  families  who  had  as  good  horses  and  as  brave 
hearts  as  the  royal  cavaliers,  and  these  men  he  determined  to  use.     He 


TMrty-three  f]^^  English  PuHtans  177 

drilled  his  own  men  patiently  until  they  were  masters  of  military  tactics. 
He  infused  into  them  a  deep  sense  of  their  task  as  defenders  of  religion. 
He  fired  them  with  his  own  purpose  and  enthusiasm.  On  the  eve  of 
the  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  wliile  the  soldiers  of  the  royal  army  were 
carousing,  the  regiment  of  Cromwell  held  a  prayer  meeting;  the  next 
day  it  was  their  cavalry  charge  that  won  a  great  victory  for  Parliament, 
and  they  celebrated  by  singing  psalms.  The  man  who  could  produce 
such  a  regiment  of  Ironsides  as  this  was  wanted  for  general  of  the  arm}-. 
What  he  had  done  with  a  few  he  was  able  to  do  with  many.  A  year 
later  on  the  field  of  Naseby  Cromwell  proved  decisively  that  his  method 
was  the  true  one,  and  that  "  God  with  us  "  was  a  more  thrilling  challenge 
than  the  name  of  king  or  queen. 

Note  8.  A  Puritan  Dictator.  The  civil  war  ended  with  the  defeat 
of  the  royalists  and  the  execution  of  the  king.  Charles  I  had  reigned 
for  himself  alone;  it  was  the  Puritan  idea  that  he  should  have  reigned 
for  his  people.  Even  before  the  war  was  over  religious  reforms  were 
carried  out.  The  Presbyterians  found  themselves  strong  enough  to 
change  the  constitution  of  the  Anglican  church,  and  in  the  famous 
Westminster  Assembly  of  Presbyterian  leaders  they  adopted  their  Con- 
fession and  Catechism  after  the  pattern  of  Calvin.  But  as  Episcopacy 
gave  way  to  Presbyterianism,  so  thelatter  gave  place  to  Independency. 
The  revolution  had  produced  an  army  more  powerful  than  Parliament, 
and  the  army  was  independent  in  its  ideas  of  religion  and  government. 
At  the  head  of  the  army  was  Cromwell.  In  the  confusion  and  conflict 
of  parties  he  held  public  afi^airs  with  a  continually  tightening  rein.  The 
people  could  not  be  trusted  to  govern  themselves;  Cromwell  became 
their  Lord  Protector.  He  was  the  personification  of  Puritanism.  He 
felt  himself  called  of  God  to  lead  the  Puritan  hosts,  as  truly  as  were  the 
heroes  of  ancient  Israel.  In  the  vigorous  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament 
he  maintained  a  Puritan  rule  over  England.  He  was  a  typical  Puritan 
in  the  strength  of  his  religious  beliefs,  and  in  the  courage  of  his  con- 
victions. 

But  Puritanism  was  harsh  in  its  methods,  and  too  often  gloomy  and 
narrc  w  in  its  spirit.  It  went  too  far  in  its  emphasis  upon  sobriety  and 
religiousness,  and  the  reaction  came  in  the  restoration  of  the  Stuart 
monarchy  in  1660  and  in  a  carnival  of  unrestrained  pleasure.  Yet 
Puritanism  worked  mightily  for  good  in  old  England,  and  in  the  New 
England  beyond  the  Atlantic  it  laid  the  foundations  of  a  sturdy  and 
God-fearing  nation.  The  reaction  could  not  prevent  the  completion  of 
reform  at  a  later  day.  Oliver  Cromwell  was  a  dictator  at  a  time  when 
strength  and  courage  were  most  needed  to  prevent  national  shipwreck. 


178  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"'<"» 

Surely  England  had  seen  a  contrast  between  a  king  who  claimed  to 
rule  by  divine  right,  but  who  in  reality  was  a  selfish  tyrant,  and  a  man 
who  ruled  well,  not  because  he  was  born  to  the  purple,  but  because  he 
felt  himself  guided  by  the  hand  of  God,  and  realized  his  duty  to  the 
nation. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Presbyterianism? 

2.  Where  did  it  originate? 

3.  Where  has  it  been  prominent? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  there  come  to  be  Puritans  in  England? 


2.  What  was  their  purpose,  and  how  far  did  they  achieve  it  in  the 
first  fifty  years? 

3.  How  did  the  Puritans  fiisi  o,k\  with  the  English  rulers? 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  king  James  version  of  the  Bible? 

5.  Explain  hjw  there  came  to  be  a  civil  war. 

6.  Why  did  many  Puritans  emigrate? 

y.  Ji*  what  way  did  Cromwell  become  prominent? 

8.  What  proved  the  valor  of  the  Ironsides? 

9.  Outline  the  history  of  Cromwell's  dictatorship. 


Thirty^jour  f^g  Pilgrim  Exiles  179 

10.  Show  the  contrast  between  Charles  I  and  Cromwell. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Heron:  Short  History  of  the  Puritans.     (2)  Roosevelt:  Life  oj 
Oliver  Cromwell.     {3)  Gardiner:  CromwelVs  Place  in  History. 


Lesson   34.    THE   PILGRIM   EXILES.    The   Mayflower   and  its 

Company. 

Sources. — Bradford's  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation;  Mourt's  Relation; 
Plymouth  Colony  Records;  Arber's  Story  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  containing  nu- 
merous extracts  from  the  sources;  Hanbury's  Memorials. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson  for 
class  questions. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Take  special  note  of:  (a)  the  differ- 
ence between  Puritans  and  Separatists;  (6)  the  life  in  Holland;  (c)  the  Plymouth 
settlement;  {d)  the  spirit  that  produced  success. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  discussion  in  class :  Is  such  a  pilgrim- 
age as  that  of  the  Scrooby  folk  more  worth  while  than  the  religious  pilgrimages 
to  Rome  or  Mecca.?  Give  reasons.  Is  it  possible  to  speak  of  the  Pilgrim  enter- 
prise as  a  Christian  mission? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  preceding  summary  is  complete.  (6) 
Draw  a  map  to  show  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Scrooby  company,  (c)  Write  an 
imaginary  description  of  the  departure  of  the  Mayflower  from  Plymouth  back 
to  England,  or  of  the  signing  of  the  compact  in  the  Mayflower  cabin,  {d)  Make 
a  diagram  to  show  the  growth  of  independency  in  English  religion  from  the 
time  of  Henry  VHI  to  the  Plymouth  settlement,  (e)  Write  in  one  hundred 
words  the  substance  of  the  Mayflower  Compact. 

Note  1.  The  Pilgrim  Church  in  Scrooby.  There  was  an  old  manor 
house  in  Scrooby  on  the  road  from  London  to  York  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land that  had  a  history.  When  Margaret,  the  sister  of  Henry  VIII, 
married  king  James  IV  of  Scotland,  she  stopped  there  over  night  on 
her  bridal  journey  north.  When  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  dismissed  by 
king  Heru'y,  he  too  found  a  resting  place  at  Scrooby  for  a  time.  But 
the  most  important  part  of  its  history  is  not  in  connection  with  queen 
or  cardinal,  but  in  its  Pilgrim  church. 

In  the  days  when  the  Puritan  ministers  were  haggling  with  king 
James  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference,  there  was  living  in  the  old 
manor  house  a  certain  William  Brewster,  who  was  a  postmaster  in  the 
employ  of  the  sovereign.     Between  his  official  duties  he  thought  much 


180  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

about  matters  of  religion,  and  was  inclined  to  be  quite  independent  in 
his  thinking.  Before  long  he  invited  his  neighbors  to  meet  Sundays  in 
the  manor  house,  and  listen  to  Puritan  preaching.  But  he  and  his 
friends  believed  that  it  was  not  enough  to  be  a  Puritan,  and  so  organized 
an  independent  church  of  theh  own,  and  separated  altogether  from  the 
established  Anglican  church. 

Note  2.  Puritans  and  Separatists.  At  this  time  there  were  in 
England  a  great  many  Puritans,  but  very  few  Separatists.  It  is  im- 
portant to  distinguish  between  the  two,  for  it  is  easy  to  confuse  them. 
Puritans  were  persons  who  wished  to  reform  the  church,  but  had  no 
thought  of  withdra\ving  from  it,  at  least  not  so  long  as  they  remained 
in  England.  But  there  w^ere  a  few  who  thought  that  it  never  would  be 
possible  to  secure  reform  from  wdthin;  and  they  decided  to  separate 
from  that*  which  was  hopelessly  worldly.  Those  who  thus  separated 
themselves  were  called  Separatists.  Because  they  dissented  from  the 
opinions  of  the  great  majority  of  church  people,  they  are  often  spoken 
of  as  Dissenters.  Because  they  organized  themselves,  ecclesiastically 
as  independent  congregations,  they  are  also  called  Independents  and 
Congregationalists.  In  America  all  Puritans  became  Independents,  and 
adopted  a  Congregational  form  of  church  organization,  but  in  England 
they  were  quite  distinct.  When  the  Scrooby  people  organized  their 
congregation,  there  were  three  other  Separatist  congregations  that  had 
originated  in  England,  but  because  of  persecution  had  fled  to  Holland, 
where  there  was  toleration.  But  neither  the  English  government  nor 
the  English  people  had  much  sympathy  for  those  Protestants  who  were 
so  radical  that  they  could  not  affiliate  with  the  old  fine  Anglicans,  the 
Puritans,  or  the  Presb\i;erians. 

Note  3.    The  Scrooby  Separatists  Begin  their  Pilgrimage.    It  was 

the  established  policy  of  the  English  sovereigns  not  to  tolerate  religious 
dissent.  The  Scrooby  people  knew  that  in  organizing  their  own  con- 
gregation they  were  inviting  attack.  Other  Separatists  were  being  put 
to  death  for  a  similar  fault.  To  many  people  they  may  seem  foolishly 
independent,  but  with  them  it  was  a  matter  of  conscience.  They  could 
not  obey  the  proclamation  of  king  James  demanding  uniformity,  and 
therefore  they  made  preparations  to  leave  the  country  for  safety. 
After  they  had  made  the  necessary  arrangements  for  transportation, 
had  disposed  of  some  of  their  property  and  packed  up  their  movable 
goods,  they  made  their  w^ay  to  old  Boston,  and  prepared  to  set  sail  for 
Amsterdam.  Twice  they  were  prevented  from  leaving  the  country, 
for  the  king  would  not  permit  Englishmen  to  banish  themselves  from 
the  homeland.     At  last,  however,  they  made  their  way  to  Holland, 


Thirty-four  f^g  PUgrim  ExiUs  181 

where  they  were  welcomed  by  other  EngHsh  exiles.  In  Amsterdam 
they  remained  about  a  year,  but  they  found  their  English  neighbors 
so  extremely  independent  as  to  be  quarrelsome,  and  the  Scrooby  people 
moved  on  to  Leyden. 

It  was  not  easy  for  these  English  men  and  women  to  give  up  their 
homes  in  the  parish  where  their  ancestors  had  lived,  to  sacrifice  property 
and  occupations,  and  to  attempt  to  get  a  hving  in  the  midst  of  untried 
surroundings,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  people  who  had  different  customs 
and  spoke  a  different  language.  The  Scrooby  folk  could  not  expect  to 
improve  their  material  fortunes,  but  they  were  willing  to  suffer  incon- 
venience and  poverty  if  only  they  could  be  free  to  practice  their  own 
religion,  and  this  they  were  able  to  do  in  Leyden. 

Note  4.  The  Mayflower  Enterprise.  After  they  had  remained  in 
Leyden  more  than  ten  years,  it  became  apparent  that  they  could  not 
hope  for  religious  liberty  in  England,  and  they  began  to  look  about  for 
a  new  home.  They  had  been  able  to  get  on  in  Leyden,  but  they  saw 
their  children  growing  up  like  the  Dutch  rather  than  their  own  English 
people,  and  they  longed  for  some  English  shore  where  they  might  end 
their  pilgrimage,  and  leave  a  better  heritage  to  those  who  came  after 
them.  Not  a  few  of  those  who  suffered  for  religion's  sake  turned  their 
eyes  toward  America  in  those  days,  and  though  Englishmen  had  made 
only  one  permanent  settlement,  and  that  at  Jamestown  was  under 
Anglican  auspices,  the  Scrooby  company  looked  about  for  means  to 
emigrate  to  some  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  A  company  of  merchants 
in  London,  England,  had  obtained  a  large  grant  of  land  in  the  southern 
coast  region.  This  company  was  looking  for  industrious  settlers,  and 
presently  a  bargain  was  struck  between  them. 

So  it  came  about  that  as  many  of  the  Scrooby  folk  as  could  go  found 
themselves  one  morning  on  the  deck  of  the  ship  Speedwell  in  the  harbor 
of  Delft,  listening  to  the  farewells  of  their  friends,  and  especially  of 
their  beloved  minister  John  Robinson,  who  was  to  remain  behind. 
From  Delft  they  sailed  across  the  English  channel  to  Southampton, 
where  other  Pilgrims  joined  them  in  the  Mayflower,  but  unfortunately 
the  Speedwell  proved  unseaworthy,  many  became  discouraged  and 
decided  to  abandon  the  enterprise,  and  at  last  the  Mayflower  got  away 
late  in  September  1620,  crowded  with  a  hundred  passengers. 

Note  5.  The  Mayflower  Compact.  It  was  a  stormy  voyage  that 
the  Mayflower  company  experienced,  but  they  weathered  the  gales 
and  after  two  montlis  dropped  anchor  in  Cape  Cod  Bay  instead  of  in 
Virginia.  The  coast  of  southeastern  New  England  is  far  from  an  in- 
viting sight  in  November,  but  the  v/^^ry  emigrants  were  glad  to  set 


182  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^«"'>'» 

foot  on  shore,  and  as  soon  as  possible  they  investigated  the  country, 
and  at  last,  late  in  December,  broke  ground  for  a  settlement  in  a  harbor 
that  they  called  Plymouth.  It  had  been  agreed  before  they  left  Eng- 
land that  the  Pilgrims  should  not  be  molested  in  their  religious  beliefs, 
and  they  were  free  to  arrange  for  their  own  government.  They  were 
lovers  of  law  and  order,  like  all  good  Englishmen,  but  there  were  some 
adventurers  among  the  colonists  who  were  not  of  the  Scrooby  company, 
and  who  were  inclined  to  act  independently.  In  order  to  make  their 
community  life  secure,  the  Pilgrims  gathered  in  the  cabin  of  the  May- 
flower and  signed  a  compact  by  which  they  covenanted  to  keep  the 
laws  that  were  made  and  to  accept  whatever  government  it  should  seem 
best  to  adopt.  They  had  already  chosen  a  governor,  and  when  they 
landed  and  made  their  settlement  their  life  went  on  as  smoothly  as  if 
they  were  Englishmen  in  the  mother  country. 

Note  6.  The  Meaning  of  the  Plymouth  Settlement.  The  colony 
of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  never  was  very  large.  It  was  overshad- 
owed by  the  more  extensive  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  before 
the  century  was  over  it  was  merged  in  the  larger  colony.  The  Scrooby 
company  could  not  boast  of  well-to-do  merchants  and  university- 
trained  ministers,  like  the  Puritans  of  Boston,  but  the  Mayflower  enter- 
prise has  a  significance  of  its  own  that  makes  it  not  less  important. 
Ten  years  before  the  Puritans  settled  at  Charlestown  in  Boston  harbor 
the  Pilgrims  established  a  commonwealth  on  the  foundation  of  democ- 
racy in  church  and  state.  They  had  come  to  America  as  Congrega- 
tionalists;  and  in  the  Mayflower  Compact  they  had  drawn  up  an  in- 
strument of  self-government  that  introduced  a  new  era.  On  this  foun- 
dation the  Pilgrim  state  existed  as  long  as  it  remained  a  separate  colony, 
and  its  two-fold  democracy  was  a  valuable  example  to  other  colonies, 
and  a  precedent  for  democratic  government  in  the  whole  nation. 
Small  as  it  seemed  in  its  beginnings  the  Pilgrim  settlement  at  Plymouth 
was  in  effect  one  of  the  greatest  enterprises  in  history. 

Note  7.  The  First  Winter.  As  if  nature  conspired  with  the  Eng- 
lish king  to  crush  the  spirit  of  independence,  the  first  winter  treated 
the  Pilgrims  harshly.  Under  severe  handicaps  they  erected  their  log 
houses  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  that  rises  above  the  harbor,  and  at  the 
top  built  their  meeting-house,  and  planted  their  cannon  on  its  roof. 
Through  the  long  weeks  the  Mayflower  rode  at  anchor  in  the  harbor, 
but  no  other  sail  broke  the  horizon  line.  The  bitter  cold  and  snow 
were  worse  than  anything  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed,  and, 
after  the  long  and  perilous  passage,  were  most  trying  to  the  health  of 
the  community.    One  after  another  succumbed  to  the  hardships  of 


Thirty-four  ffig  Pilgrim  Exiles  183 

those  months,  and  when  spring  came  and  the  Mayflower  sailed  away 
to  England,  not  more  than  half  of  the  original  company  remained  above 
the  sod.  Even  John  Carver,  the  governor,  was  dead.  But  the  sturdy 
souls  that  had  suffered  and  dared  so  much  were  not  daunted,  and  not 
one  would  return  when  the  Mayflower  turned  her  prow  to  the  east. 
Seldom  in  the  world's  history  has  there  been  so  pathetic  or  heroic  a 
scene  as  when  the  little  handful  of  Pilgrims  gathered  on  Burial  Hill 
and  watched  the  Mayflower  pass  the  point  and  disappear.  The  last 
tie  with  old  England  was  broken.  They  did  not  know  whether  they 
should  ever  again  see  an  English  ship.  But  they  dared  it  all  for  re- 
ligion's sake,  and  they  trusted  in  God  to  bring  them  through  even  the 
valley  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

Note  8.  The  Future  of  the  Colony.  With  the  spring  came  better 
fortunes.  The  Indians  were  friendly.  Fish  swarmed  in  the  sea,  and 
game  was  abundant  in  the  woods.  Grain  was  planted  and  harvested. 
The  colony  received  other  settlers  from  England.  The  young  people 
married  and  made  homes  of  their  own.  With  Bradford  as  governor 
and  Brewster  as  religious  leader,  the  community  kept  the  peace  and 
prospered.  In  time  some  of  the  settlers  pushed  out  and  established 
homes  beyond  the  original  bounds  of  the  settlement.  Later  on  they 
met  the  outposts  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  extending  toward 
the  south.  Such  prosperity  was  most  satisfactory  after  the  precarious 
existence  of  the  first  months  at  Plymouth.  But  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  this  future  prosperity  could  not  be  foreseen  in  the  dark  days, 
and  it  was  only  their  courage  as  Englishmen  and  their  faith  as  religious 
pioneers  that  made  possible  their  victory  over  every  obstacle. 

Note  9.  The  Church  of  the  Pilgrims.  It  was  a  great  disappoint- 
ment to  the  original  emigrants  that  their  pastor,  John  Robinson,  had 
been  unable  to  accompany  them.  William  Brewster,  although  not 
ordained,  ministered  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  company  as  best  he 
could  until  a  regular  minister  could  be  obtained.  The  local  church 
organized  itself,  and  managed  its  affairs  on  the  Congregational  pattern. 
It  affiliated  with  the  independent  churches  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
settlement,  and  from  time  to  time  sent  out  religious  colonies  of  its  own 
that  became  independent  churches.  In  this  way  Congregationalism 
received  its  planting  in  New  England  when  it  had  been  banished  from 
old  England  over  sea,  and  from  this  beginning  "  the  Congregational, 
way  "  has  found  a  path  for  itself  across  the  American  continent, 
and  from  America  has  crossed  a  larger  ocean  to  India,  China  and 
Japan. 


184  Landviarks  in  Chrisiian  Hidory  ^^««on 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  were  tlie  Puritans? 

2.  Why  did  they  resort  to  a  revolution? 

3.  Who  was  their  greatest  leader? 

4.  How  did  the  Puritans  succeed? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Why  is  Scrooby  manor  house  of  special  historic  interest? 


2.  Who  were  the  Separatists? 

3.  Why  did  the  Scrooby  congregation  go  to  Holland? 

4.  Explain  the  cause  and  the  nature  of  the  Mayflower  enterprise. 

5.  Describe  the  voyage,  and  the  agreement  made  before  landing. 

6.  Why  is  the  settlement  of  Plymouth  important? 

7.  Describe  the  hardships  and  the  heroism  of  the  first  months. 

8.  How  did  the  future  result? 

9.  Who  were  the  principal  leaders  among  the  Pilgrims? 

10.  What  was  the  church  of  the  Pilgrims? 


Thirty-five  Congregationolists  in  America  185 

Reading  References. 

{1)  Fiske:  Beginnings  of  New  England,  pp.  66-87.  {2)  Young: 
Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  pp.  109-239.  {3)  Ames:  The  May- 
flower and  her  Log. 


Lesson  35.     CONGREGATIONALISTS  IN  AMERICA.    What  Con- 
gregationalism Means. 

Sources. — Winthrop's  Journal;  Mather's  Magnolia;  Dexter's  Congregational- 
ism as  seen  ifi  its  Literature;  Walker's  Creeds  and  Platforms  of  Congregationalism; 
Dimning's  The  National  Council  Digest. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  The  following  points  should  be 
especially  considered:  (a)  the  organization  of  an  established  Congregationalist 
system  of  church  and  state  in  New  England;  (6)  the  importance  of  the  ministers; 
(c)  how  the  churches  manage  their  affairs;  (d)  the  various  interests  of  the  de- 
nomination; (c)  its  standing  and  present  prospects. 

3.  Think  about  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  What  can  a  single 
Congregationalist  church  do  in  a  country  community  to  improve  social 
conditions? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  written 
out  in  full,  (b)  Write  a  short  account  of  one  of  the  following:  John  Winthrop, 
Cotton  Mather,  Jonathan  Edwards,  or  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  (c)  Draw  a  map 
to  show  the  early  Congregationalist  colonies,  and  some  of  the  important  Con- 
gregationalist centers  of  later  days. 

Note  1.  Congregationalism  the  EstabUshed  Faith  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  pioneers  of  religious  independency  in  England  were  the 
ancestors  of  two  prominent  denominations  in  present  day  England  and 
America — the  Congregationalists  and  Baptists.  They  were  individual- 
ists in  religion  when  all  others  accepted  the  idea  of  a  national  church. 
They  wanted  neither  bisliop  nor  presbytery  to  govern  them,  but  main- 
tained the  right  of  every  congregation  to  control  itself.  This  is  the 
peculiar  characteristic  of  Congregationalism. 

The  Pilgrims  were  the  first  English  Independents  to  seek  asylum  in 
America,  but  the  main  stream  of  immigration  did  not  come  through 
the  port  of  Plymouth.  In  the  troubled  years  of  strife  that  preceded 
the  English  Revolution,  Puritans  who  despaired  of  reforming  the 
Anglican  church  crossed  the  Atlantic  and  settled  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  about  Boston  as  a  center.  Here  three  thousand  miles 
from  home  they  took  on  the  Congregational  t}^e  of  independency  with 
Plymouth  as  a  model.  Twenty  thousand  Puritans  thus  became  New 
England  Congregationalists  in  the  decade  before  1640.  Some  of  the 
settlers  made  their  way  to  New  Haven  and  to  the  Connecticut  valley. 


186  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

until  four  tiny  commonwealths  were  organized  on  the  independent 
pattern.  In  these  commonwealtlis  each  church  was  founded  on  the 
Congregationalist  model,  but  with  a  recognition  of  inter-church  fellow- 
ship. Each  colony  was  sufficiently  exclusive  to  desire  the  presence  of 
none  but  people  of  their  own  kind,  and  each  relied  on  a  friendly  colonial 
government  of  their  own  making  to  see  that  the  type  was  preserved. 
In  this  way  the  Congregationalist  church  became  the  "  standing  order  " 
of  religion  in  New  England,  except  in  Rhode  Island,  as  truly  as  the 
Anglican  church  was  a  state  establishment  in  England. 

Note  2.  The  Influence  of  the  Ministers.  In  the  Congregationahst 
churches  there  is  no  recognition  of  a  minister  as  bishop  or  priest.  A 
minister  is  the  leader  of  Ihe  local  congregation  in  religious  interests,  the 
pastor  of  souls  as  the  shepherd  is  caretaker  of  his  flock,  the  administrator 
of  spiritual  tilings  in  the  parish,  the  counsellor  and  teacher  of  his  own 
people,  and  the  adviser  of  other  churches  and  ministers.  He  is  ambas- 
sador of  God  to  men,  but  not  a  priest  standing  between  God  and  men. 
He  has  no  authority  except  that  which  is  given  him  by  the  church.  His 
influence  is  proportionate  to  the  strength  of  his  own  personahty  and  the 
sheer  force  of  his  own  manliness.  The  Congregationalist  church  has 
always  put  emphasis  upon  an  upright  and  educated  body  of  ministers, 
and  honors  and  respects  its  leaders.  In  colonial  days  they  were  men  of 
greatest  influence  because  of  the  close  alliance  between  church  and 
state.  As  religious  interest  was  the  motive  that  led  to  the  emigration, 
so  the  minister  as  interpreter  of  divine  and  human  conduct  was  the  first 
citizen.  In  the  parish,  which  was  identical  with  the  town,  he  was  the 
acknowledged  leader;  in  the  colonial  legislature  he  was  an  outspoken 
lobbyist.  This  dominance  of  religious  leaders  has  given  the  name  of 
"  the  theocracy  "  to  the  government  of  Massachusetts  until  the  exclu- 
sive policy  broke  down  about  thirty-five  years  after  the  colony  was 
founded. 

Note  3.  Breathing  a  Religious  Atmosphere.  The  young  people 
of  New  England  grew  up  in  surroundings  such  as  these,  and  Sundays 
and  week  days  they  breathed  this  religious  atmosphere.  In  their  re- 
ligious opinions  they  shared  in  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  and  the  Con- 
gregationalist home  and  parish  reflected  the  sternness  of  Puritan 
Geneva.  Moral  standards  were  high,  and  the  rules  of  life  were  strict. 
It  was  not  all  solemnity  and  shadow  in  the  Puritan  home,  but  life  was 
a  serious  responsibility,  and  if  any  persons  failed  to  live  correctly  they 
were  speedily  called  to  account.  The  church  assumed  the  responsi- 
bility of  regulating  the  lives  of  its  members,  and  the  Congregationalists 
regarded  discipline  as  important  as  did  the  Presbyterians.     But  they 


Thirty-five  Congregationolists  in  America  187 

carried  it  through  in  a  different  way,  and  in  this  lies  the  fundamental 
difference  between  Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians,  not  in  a 
matter  of  behef. 

Note  4.  Congregationalist  Organization.  The  very  name  Congre- 
gational puts  emphasis  on  the  congregation.  In  Congregationalism  the 
local  church  is  independent  of  every  other  church  or  combination  of 
churches,  and  every  church  is  governed  by  its  own  members.  While 
the  Presbyterian  denomination  has  its  general  assembly,  its  synods,  and 
its  presbyteries,  all  with  jurisdiction  over  the  local  church,  the  Congre- 
gationalist denomination  is  only  a  loose  federation  of  local  churches, 
organized  for  convenience  and  for  fellowship  in  a  national  council,  and 
in  state  and  district  conferences  and  associations,  but  none  of  these  have 
power  over  the  local  church.  Congregationalism  represents  pure  de- 
mocracy in  religion.  In  the  government  of  the  local  church  Congrega- 
tionalist history  has  presented  two  varieties,  one  where  every  member 
of  the  congregation  has  an  equal  voice,  the  other  where  the  leaders 
exercise  control.  The  former  is  the  true  Congregationalism;  the  latter 
is  a  semi-Presbyteriamsm,  that  was  strong  in  the  aristocratic  days  of 
the  theocracy,  but  gave  way  to  a  purer  democracy. 

As  Puritan  ideas  lost  the  strength  of  their  grip  with  the  passing  of 
time,  discipline  became  of  less  relative  importance.  Other  matters 
interested  the  churches.  At  the  same  time  there  was  not  the  strenuous 
necessity  of  insisting  upon  local  independence.  That  principle  was 
understood  and  accepted  as  a  fundamental  principle  in  the  denomina- 
tion. The  value  of  fellowship  between  the  churches  led  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  conferences  of  churches  and  ministerial  associations,  but  care 
was  always  taken  to  see  that  there  was  no  infringement  of  the  rights  of 
the  churches.  This  is  the  time-honored  "  Congregational  way,"  and 
for  these  principles  of  independence  and  fellowship  Congregationalism 
stands. 

Note  5.  The  History  of  Colonial  New  England.  The  Puritan 
commonwealth  of  New  England  enjoyed  material  prosperity  because 
the  settlers  contended  sturdily  against  savage  nature  and  still  more 
savage  Indians.  They  gained  political  experience  and  self-confidence 
by  their  experiments,  and  though  they  could  not  surpass  their  fathers 
in  serious  purpose  and  religious  devotion,  they  maintained  their  church 
life  and  their  religious  customs,  and  carried  Congregationalism  with 
them  as  they  steadily  advanced  the  frontiers  of  settlement.  The  Con- 
gregational way  was  not  free  from  briars  and  pitfalls.  Church  con- 
ferences were  held  more  than  once.  There  was  discussion  over  the 
right  to  church  membership  and  admission  to  the  ordinances  of  baptism 


188  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^^""^ 

and  the  Lord's  Supper,  especially  as  to  the  privileges  of  cliildren,  and 
this  was  settled  for  nearly  two  centuries  by  the  adoption  of  a  "  half-way 
covenant,"  which  admitted  to  baptism  the  children  of  those  who  were 
not  in  full  membership  but  in  affiliation.  Sometimes  drastic  action  had 
to  be  taken  to  keep  out  or  to  expel  disturbers  of  the  civil  or  religious 
peace.  Often  the  Congregationalist  leaders  bewailed  the  religious  leth- 
argy of  those  in  Zion.  ^ 

The  early  seventeenth  century  witnessed  a  serious  decline  in  religious 
interest,  but  later  revivals  under  Jonathan  Edwards  and  George  Wliite- 
field,  an  English  preacher,  stimulated  a  better  spirit.  Edwards  was  an 
inlellectual  giant  as  well  as  a  revivalist,  the  greatest  thinker  that  America 
produced  in  colonial  days.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  New  England 
theology  that  holds  a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of  Christian 
doctrine. 

Note  6.  New  Interests  and  Activities.  With  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury came  more  revivals,  and  a  greater  development  of  New  England 
theology,  but  new  ideas  and  new  interests  were  coming  to  the  front. 
There  were  many  who  were  no  longer  satisfied  with  the  stern  theology 
of  Calvinism,  and  had  even  less  use  for  the  emotionalism  in  religion 
that  appeared  prominent  in  revivals.  They  were  liberal  in  theology 
and  rational  in  conduct.  At  last  their  dissatisfaction  led  some  individ- 
uals to  withdraw  and  organize  separate  churches,  and  in  some  cases 
w^hole  churches  adopted  liberal  opinions  and  took  a  new  designation. 
In  this  way  the  Unitarians  of  New  England  came  out  of  Congregation- 
alist churches.  Unitarians  retained  the  Congregational  form  of  organi- 
zation, and  in  their  worship  they  were  not  very  different,  but  in  doctrine 
their  emphasis  was  on  humanity  rather  than  divinity,  and  their  energies 
were  devoted  to  humanitarian  endeavor  in  this  world  instead  of  spiritual 
growth  for  the  next. 

Both  Trinitarian  and  Unitarian  Congregationalists  were  loyal  to  tlie 
principle  of  thorough  education  for  their  ministers.  Harvard  College 
had  been  founded  for  that  express  purpose  within  a  few  years  after  the 
colonial  settlement.  Other  colleges  were  founded  as  needed.  In  the 
nineteenth  century  a  number  of  theological  seminaries  were  added.  In 
1810  the  Congregationalists  organized  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners to  carry  on  the  enterprise  of  foreign  missions.  In  union  with 
the  Presbyterians  they  interested  themselves  in  the  evangelization  of  the 
growing  West.  They  had  their  share  in  the  overthrow  of  slavery,  and 
have  helped  to  educate  the  emancipated  negro  in  the  South.  In  recent 
years  the  Congregationalist  churches  have  taken  a  position  of  promi- 
nence in  other  departments  of  social  service. 


Thirty-five  Congregationalists  in  America  189 

Note  7.  Congregationalists  Outside  of  New  England.  The  strength 
of  the  CongregationaHsts  has  always  been  in  New  England;  but  wher- 
ever New  Englanders  have  gone  they  have  taken  with  them  their  type 
of  religion,  and  in  the  cities  and  throughout  the  Middle  West  they  hold 
a  prominent  place.  There  are  in  the  whole  country  more  than  seven 
hundred  thousand  Congregationalists,  and  they  contribute  yearly  eleven 
and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  for  religious  purposes.  It  is  characteristic 
of  Congregationalists,  as  of  other  Clu-istians  in  the  twentieth  century, 
thai  they  interpret  Clu*istianity  in  terms  of  life  rather  than  of  doctrine. 
It  makes  less  difference  what  a  person's  belief  may  be  than  what  spirit 
animates  his  life.  Organization  is  determined  less  by  theory  than  by 
efficiency.  With  na  intention  of  sacrificing  the  independence  of  the 
local  congregations  the  denomination  has  strengthened  itself  by  more 
general  organizations.  The  National  Council  is  of  gro\ving  importance, 
and  is  continually  gathering  to  itself  more  of  the  activities  and  functions 
of  the  denomination.  Congregationalism  cannot  cease  to  be  itself,  be- 
cause it  is  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  American  institutions,  but  the 
more  efficiently  it  organizes  itself  for  the  accomplishment  of  present 
day  tasks,  the  more  effective  will  it  be,  and  the  larger  place  it  will  fill 
among  the  religious  forces  of  America. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  Recent  Lessons. 

1.  Where  did  modern  Presbyterianism  originate.^ 

2.  Where  has  it  been  prominent? 

3.  What  does  it  stand  for  in  doctrine  and  organization .^^ 

4.  Who  were  the  Puritans? 

5.  What  was  their  history  in  England? 

6.  Describe  the  meaning  of  the  Pilgrims,  and  the  importance  of  their 
history. 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Why  did  Congregationalism  become  strong  in  New  England? 


2.  Show  how  it  became  the  "  standing  order.'* 

3.  Explain  the  power  of  the  ministers. 

4.  What  did  Puritanism  stand  for  in  America? 


100  Landmarhs  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

5.  How  are  the  Congregationalist  churches  organized? 

6.  What  difficulties  troubled  the  churches? 

7.  Who  was  Jonathan  Edwards? 

8.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  Unitarians  in  New  England. 

9.  How  have  Congregationalists  interested  themselves  in  missions?  • 

10.  Describe  American  Congregationalists  in  the  twentieth  century. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Fiske:  Beginnings  of  Neiv  England,  pp.  88-114.     (2)  Boynton: 
The  Congregational  Way.     (3)  Felt:  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New 
England,  ch.  5. 


Lesson  36.    A  DAY  IN  PURITAN  BOSTON.    The  Banishment  of 
Roger  Williams. 

Sources. — Records  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony;  letters  of  Roger 
Williams;  Bradford's  History  of  Plymouth;  Winthrop's  History  of  New  England; 
Backus'  History  of  the  Baptists  of  New  England;  Williams'  Bloody  Tenent  of 
Persecution  for  Cause  of  Conscience. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  character 
of  Williams;  (b)  his  trial;  (c)  the  conflicting  theories  regarding  liberty  in  religion; 
(d)  Williams'  later  career. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  question  for  class  discussion:  How  estimate  the 
value  to  society  of  a  pioneer  like  Roger  Williams.^ 


Thirty-six  ^  j^^y  {^  Puritan  Boston  191 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  completed. 
(6)  Write  an  imaginary  sketch  of  Roger  Williams  in  two  parts — first,  his  trial 
before  the  Massachusetts  Court,  and  secondly,  his  winter  wanderings  among 
the  Indians,  (c)  Draw  a  map  to  show  the  three  colonies  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  Plymouth,  and  Providence,  from  Salem  to  Providence. 

Note  1.  Colonial  Boston.  It  was  the  eighth  day  of  October,  1635. 
The  peninsula  of  Shawmut,  called  Boston  after  the  old  English  town 
of  that  name,  lay  beneath  the  autumn  sun,  crowned  with  its  three  hills 
and  bathing  its  feet  in  the  waters  of  the  harbor.  Four  years  before  this, 
Puritan  settlers  had  laid  the  foundations  of  the  new  town,  and  on  King 
Street  had  put  up  the  Congregationalist  meeting-house  that  had. been 
intended  originally  for  Charlestown  across  the  river.  Not  far  from  the 
church  Governor  Winthrop  had  erected  liis  house  on  the  Roxbury  high- 
way, and  in  democratic  fashion  was  wont  to  attend  church  with  his 
fellow  citizens.  The  new  settlement  straggled  up  the  slope  past  the 
house  of  Anne  Hutchinson  to  the  Common,  capped  by  Sentry  Hill. 
Here  the  Puritans  had  gained  a  foothold  on  the  western  continent,  and 
here  on  that  October  afternoon  Puritanism  was  in  the  air. 

Note  2.  A  Session  of  Court.  On  this  day  the  court  of  the  colony 
assembles  at  Cambridge  across  the  Charles  River.  It  is  not  an  ordinary 
occasion.  At  its  bar  stands  for  final  trial  and  sentence  a  man  who  has 
come  from  England  as  a  Puritan,  has  been  accepted  by  both  colonies, 
and  has  been  an  honored  minister  over  Congregationahst  churches,  but 
who  has  been  so  independent  as  to  cherish  principles  at  variance  with 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  on  the  vital  question  of  the  rights  of 
magistrates  to  interfere  in  rehgious  matters,  and  so  indiscreet  as  to  make 
public  his  opinions.  Governor  Winthrop  is  his  friend,  but  the  other 
leaders  of  the  colony  are  vexed  at  his  independence.  Already  he  has 
been  admonished,  but  he  has  written  letters  that  incriminate  him,  one 
to  the  churches  advising  them  to  discipline  the  magistrates  for  being  too 
officious,  the  other  to  his  own  church  of  Salem  urging  it  to  withdraw 
from  fellowship  with  the  other  churches  of  the  colony.  Such  writings 
were  an  insult  to  the  ministers,  and  they  are  present  at  court  to  see  that 
justice  is  done. 

He  is  arraigned  before  the  court  and  charged  with  misconduct.  In 
response  he  tries  to  justify  his  letters  and  his  whole  course  of  conduct. 
Generously  the  court  offers  him  a  month  to  prepare  further  defense 
before  sentence  is  pronounced  upon  him,  but  he  prefers  to  bring  the 
matter  to  a  conclusion.  He  joins  in  debate  with  one  of  the  ministers 
who  is  brought  forward  as  a  champion  against  him.  All  attempt  to 
convince  him  is  fruitless,  and  with  the  waning  day  the  court  adjourns. 


192  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

only  to  meet  again  the  next  morning  and  pronounce  sentence  of  banish- 
ment from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  colony. 

Note  3.  Who  was  Roger  Williams?  This  story  of  trial  and  banish- 
ment is  well  known  as  an  account  of  the  first  serious  disturbance  that 
threatened  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  new  colony.  Passion  and 
prejudice  have  led  to  injustice  on  both  sides.  It  is  well  to  consider  it 
carefully  in  the  light  of  that  period  of  Christian  history.  Roger  Wil- 
liams, the  exiled  Puritan  minister,  was  one  of  the  restless  souls  of  that 
day  of  religious  unrest,  and  he  was  never  long  satisfied  with  the  forms 
of  religion  which  he  adopted.  Too  radical  to  play  a  part  in  the  estab- 
lished church  of  England,  he  emigrated  to  Boston  as  a  Puritan  with 
rather  independent  tendencies.  Wherever  he  went  he  showed  the 
characteristics  of  a  strong  personality  by  making  firm  friends  and 
decided  enemies.  He  found  himself  most  at  home  in  Salem,  for  that 
church  was  more  independently  inchned  than  the  others,  perhaps  be- 
cause it  was  the  mother  church  of  the  colony. 

Note  4.  The  Clash  of  Theories.  With  his  restlessness  of  mind 
this  Separatist  Salem  minister  was  moving  on  beyond  his  neighbors  in 
his  grasp  of  political  and  religious  truths.  The  Puritans  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  were  organized  on  the  basis  of  a  united  church  and  state,  like 
old  England  from  wliich  they  had  come.  They  shared  the  almost 
universal  opinion  of  the  Old  World  that  the  magistrates  of  the  state  had 
jurisdiction  in  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  affairs.  To  deny  such  con- 
trol in  old  England  was  treason;  naturally  it  was  treason  in  New  England 
also.  The  doctrine  of  full  religious  liberty  had  not  as  yet  risen  above 
the  horizon  of  thought.  When  Luther  stood  before  the  imperial  Diet 
at  Worms  he  caught  a  glimpse  of  its  meaning,  but  he  was  not  true  to 
the  light.  Roger  Wilhams,  standing  before  the  Massachusetts  court 
at  Cambridge  had  mastered  a  truth  that  belonged  to  a  later  age,  and  it 
is  not  strange  that  Puritan  divines  and  Puritan  officials  condemned  him 
in  that  gray  dawn  of  freedom.  His  independent  disposition  would  not 
permit  him  to  compromise,  and  he  did  not  restrain  his  denunciation  of 
Puritan  narrowness;  their  fear  of  schism  in  the  struggling  church  and 
of  anarchy  in  the  infant  colony  exaggerated  his  opposition  to  the  settled 
order  and  led  the  Massachusetts  leaders  to  regard  the  man  in  the  light 
of  a  deluded  and  wicked  insurgent. 

Note  5.  Outcast  in  the  Wilderness.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  in 
imagination  the  worthy  gentlemen  of  the  colony  wending  their  way 
home  from  the  court,  and  congratulating  each  other  that  this  troubler 
of  Israel,  who  had  provoked  the  churches  so  long,  was  at  last  expelled 


Thirty  six  ^  j)f^y  {f^  Puritan  Boston  193 

from  their  midst.  Reverend  John  Cotton  of  the  Boston  church  declared 
that  the  banishment  of  Wilhams  meant  his  enlargement,  because  now 
he  had  the  whole  wilderness  of  America  to  indoctrinate  with  his  heresies. 
It  would  have  been  impossible  for  them  to  see  that  the  banishment  of 
this  free  thinker  was  to  result  in  the  planting  of  another  colony  in  New 
England  of  which  the  corner  stone  would  be  this  rejected  principle  of 
religious  liberty,  and  which  in  time  would  deliver  over  the  principle  to 
a  new  nation. 

Williams  was  allowed  time  to  remove  to  a  new  settlement.  It  was 
even  agreed  that  he  might  remain  until  spring.  But  it  was  impossible 
for  the  man  to  restrain  his  liberty  of  utterance,  and  when  the  colony 
found  that  he  was  abusing  his  privilege  it  was  decided  to  ship  him  to 
England.  Learning  of  this  intention  he  fled  into  the  forest,  and  after 
many  weeks  of  wandering  and  hardship  in  the  depth  of  winter,  he 
found  a  refuge  among  the  Narragansett  Indians,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1636  laid  the  foundations  of  Providence,  later  destined  to  be  the  capital 
of  Rhode  Island. 

Note  6.  The  Limit  of  Independency.  In  espousing  the  cause  of 
religious  liberty  Williams  was  championing  a  principle  that  distin- 
guished one  branch  of  Separatists  in  England,  the  Baptists.  From  the 
Anabaptists  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  the  evangelical  radicals 
of  the  Continental  Reformation,  they  had  received  this  idea,  and  it 
became  one  of  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  small  group  of 
Christians  calling  themselves  Baptists  in  England.  Williams  may  have 
been  influenced  by  English  Baptists  before  he  emigrated  to  America, 
but  he  had  not  accepted  the  other  main  principle  of  the  Baptists,  which 
was  the  baptism  of  those  only  who  had  a  conscious  faith  in  Jesus  Christ 
as  Savior  and  Lord.  In  his  progress  towards  radical  opinions  Williams 
reached  this  milestone  of  behevers'  baptism  at  Providence,  and  there 
he  helped  to  organize  the  first  Baptist  church  in  America.  There  were 
Baptists  in  Massachusetts  Bay  from  an  early  day,  and  Henry  Dunster, 
the  president  of  Harvard  College,  became  a  Baptist,  but  no  church  of 
that  order  was  organized  in  the  colony  until  1663. 

Roger  Williams  had  not  yet  reached  the  limits  of  independency. 
There  were  a  few  Baptists  in  England  who  felt  that  it  was  important 
that  baptism  should  be  administered  only  by  those  who  had  been 
ordained  by  a  rightful  apostolic  succession.  Dissatisfied  on  this  ground, 
Williams  withdrew  presently  from  the  Baptist  communion  in  Providence 
and  announced  himself  a  "  Seeker  "  for  an  ideal  ecclesiastical  order. 

Note  7.  Three  Experiments.  The  beginnings  of  three  colonies  had 
been  made  in  less  than  twenty  years.     The  Pilgrims  of  Scrooby  and 


194  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

Leyden  had  led  the  way  in  New  England  and  settled  at  Plymouth  with 
the  heroism  of  martyrs  for  their  faith.  That  colony  in  its  slow  and 
peaceful  way  prospered  and  expanded,  and  before  the  century  was  over 
became  a  part  of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  The  Puritans  had  followed 
the  path  across  the  Atlantic,  and  had  established  a  groujD  of  settlements 
around  Boston  on  and  near  the  shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  Both 
colonies  had  established  an  orderly  government,  and  had  organized 
Congregationalist  churches  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  orders.  At  the 
head  of  Narragansett  Bay  Roger  Williams  had  found  his  haven  of 
refuge,  and  after  him  Anne  Hutchinson,  a  similar  disturber  of  the  peace 
of  Boston,  had  located  near  the  mouth  of  the  bay  on  Rhode  Island. 
At  Newport  a  second  Baptist  church  was  soon  organized.  It  was  the 
policy  of  the  Rhode  Island  settlements  from  the  beginning  to  allow  the 
freedom  which  they  were  denied  in  Massachusetts,  and  in  spite  of  many 
disorderly  elements  that  were  attracted  by  such  unusual  liberty,  the 
colony  maintained  its  existence,  and  finally  obtained  from  the  English 
king  the  most  liberal  colonial  charter  of  the  age. 

Note  8.  The  Progress  of  Christianity.  In  these  ways  by  a  process 
of  spiritual  selection  Anglo-Saxon  Christianity  was  finding  its  way  to 
strength  and  freedom.  Out  of  the  toils  of  Catholicism  it  had  tried  to 
free  itself,  but  most  people  had  gone  no  farther  than  Anglicanism.  Not 
a  few  who  were  dissatisfied  with  this  achievement  wished  to  purify  the 
church  of  its  superstitions,  and  were  dubbed  Puritans  for  their  pains. 
They  helped  in  the  way  of  progress,  but  most  of  them  clung  to  the  old 
church.  Then  it  was  that  a  few  broke  away  altogether  from  the  bonds 
that  bound  them,  accepted  the  name  of  Separatists,  and  sought  to  work 
out  their  salvation  independently  of  the  older  Anglican  order.  Some 
of  them  were  content  to  organize  themselves  on  a  Congregational  basis, 
covenanting  together  to  live  orderly  Christian  lives.  Others  were  not 
content  until  they  had  cast  off  all  shackles  on  their  freedom,  and  as 
Baptists  maintained  independence  of  individual  belief.  At  the  same 
time  they  restricted  baptism  and  church  membersliip  to  those  who  had 
such  an  intelligent  belief.  As  all  of  these  found  their  beginnings  in  old 
England,  so  they  found  a  place  in  the  beginnings  of  American  Chris- 
tianity. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  advantage  had  the  Congregationalists  in  New  England? 

2.  How  were  they  organized  ? 

3.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  denomination.'' 

4.  What  division  took  place  in  the  nineteenth  century? 


Thirty-six  ^  ])ay  in  Puritan  Boston  195 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  colonial  Boston. 


2.  Explain  the  place  of  Williams  in  the  colony. 

3.  Why  was  Roger  Williams  brought  to  trial  before  the  court? 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  the  trial  of  Williams. 

5.  What  kind  of  man  was  he.^ 

6.  In  what  way  was  Williams  ahead  of  his  times.? 

7.  How  did  it  happen  that  he  went  to  Rhode  Island.'^ 

8.  What  was  his  later  religious  history.? 


» 


9.  Point  out  resemblances  and  differences  in  the  three  colonies  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  and  Providence. 


10.  Show  how  the  Reformation  progressed  towards  independency. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Fiske:  Beginnings  of  Neiv  England,  I,  pp.  111-134.     (S)  Palfrey: 
History  of  New  England,  I,  pp.  405-425.     (3)  Newman:  History  of 
the  Baptists  in  the  United  States,  pp.  59-83. 


196  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Lesson  37.    THE  BAPTISTS  AND  THEIR  PRINCIPLES.     Growth 
in  America  and  Europe. 

Sources — Publications    of    the    Hanserd    KnoUys'    Society;    McGlothlin's  ' 
Baptist  Confessions  of  Faith;  much  controversial  literature  on  baptism,  from  the 
seventeenth  to  the  nineteenth  centuries;  Wayland's  Principles  and  Practices  of 
the  Baptists;  records  of  churches,  minutes  of  associations,  reports  of  missionary 
societies,  and  files  of  religious  newspapers. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1 .  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  for 
questions  in  class. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are: 
(a)  How  there  came  to  be  Baptists;  (6)  where  they  located  in  America;  (c)  the 
influence  of  the  Philadelphia  Association;  {d)  Baptist  missions;  (e)  the  leading 
principles  of  the  Baptists. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  class  discussion:  How  account 
for  the  growth  of  the  Baptists.?  What  are  the  important  matters  with  which 
the  church  should  busy  itself  in  these  days.'' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  written 
properly.  (6)  Make  a  list  of  the  Protestant  bodies  that  have  suffered  persecu- 
tion, with  the  name  of  the  persecuting  body,  (c)  Make  three  columns,  placing 
at  the  head  the  names  Presbyterian,  Congregationalist,  and  Baptist,  and  state 
in  each  column  the  distinctive  principles  of  each,  (d)  Write  a  brief  sketch  of 
Carey  or  Judson. 

Note  1.  Baptist  Ancestors.  The  predecessors  of  modern  Baptists 
are  to  be  found  among  the  evangelical  Christians  of  central  Europe  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  who  called  themselves  "  Brethren." 
^ike  the  Waldensians  they  were  common  folk,  who  preferred  the  teach- 
ings of  the  New  Testament  to  the  authority  of  the  church,  and  who 
valued  prayer  more  than  the  sacraments.  They  remained  within  the 
Catholic  fold  until  after  Luther  came  out  from  it.  They  never  har- 
monized with  the  Lutheran  Reformation,  and  some  of  them  were  identified 
with  the  socialistic  disturbances  of  these  years  of  upheaval.  Whether 
peaceful  or  socialistic  they  were  called  Anabaptists,  which  meant  re- 
baptizers,  because  they  did  not  regard  infant  baptism  as  true  baptism, 
and  rebaptized  adult  believers.  The  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands  were  (1)  the 
acceptance  of  the  Bible  rather  than  the  church  as  the  guide  in  religious 
faith  and  practice;  {2)  the  right  of  every  individual  to  his  own  rehgious 
experience  and  practice;  {3)  baptism  not  a  sacrament  but  a  symbol,  and 
limited  to  those  who  were  conscious  of  reconciliation  v^th  God.  Severe 
persecution  crushed  out  the  Baptists  of  the  Continent. 

In  England  the  first  Baptist  churches  came  out  of  Separatist  churches. 
English  Baptists  were  much  like  Congregationalists,  except  for  their 
emphasis  on  the  principles  mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  Anabaptists. 
Baptists  differed  among  themselves  over  the  restrictive  doctrines  of 


ThiTty-seven  ff^^  Baftists  and  their  Principles  197 

Calvinism,  and  for  nearly  three  centuries  there  were  the  two  divisions 
in  England  of  General  and  Particular  Baptists.  The  first  Particular  or 
Calvinistic  church  was  organized  only  six  years  before  Roger  Wilhams' 
church  at  Providence.  There  was  for  a  time  a  question  among  English 
Baptists  as  to  the  proper  mode  of  baptism,  but  before  1650  nearly  all 
agreed  that  the  only  proper  form  was  immersion. 

Note  2.     The   First  American   Baptists.     Baptists   received   their 

share  of  the  odium  that  was  visited  upon  all  Separatists.  Puritans 
were  bad  enough,  and  Congregationalists  were  worse,  but  the  Baptists 
were  the  worst  of  all.  More  than  one  died  at  the  stake  for  his  faith. 
In  1689  the  Toleration  Act  secured  liberty  for  Presbyterians,  Congrega- 
tionalists, and  Baptists  in  England;  but  before  that  date  not  a  few 
Baptists  left  the  country  to  obtain  religious  freedom.  Roger  Williams 
was  the  most  conspicuous  dissenter  in  the  early  history  of  Congrega- 
tionalist  New  England,  but  in  1644  a  law  was  passed  by  the  Massachu- 
setts Bay  colony  against  Baptists,  and  a  few  felt  the  heavy  hand  of  the 
lav/.  The  first  church  of  the  denomination  in  America  is  supposed  to 
be  that  at  Providence,  organized  in  1639.  Naturally  most  of  the 
Baptists  in  New  England  gathered  in  the  \dcinity  of  Providence,  but 
in  1665  a  Baptist  church  was  organized  in  Boston.  Baptists  were  the 
leaders  in  the  struggle  for  religious  liberty  in  Massachusetts  and  Vir- 
ginia, and  had  a  part  in  securing  the  separation  of  church  and  state 
when  the  national  government  was  organized  after  the  Revolution. 

Note  3.  The  Fellowship  of  Baptist  Churches.  The  first  Baptist 
churches  in  America  were  slow  to  organize  in  groups  because  of  their 
love  of  local  independence,  but  in  1707  a  number  of  churches  organized 
the  Philadelphia  Association,  which  became  influential  among  Baptists 
North  and  South.  While  their  New  England  brethren  were  striving 
for  liberty,  Philadelphia  Baptists  were  sending  out  their  evangelists 
into  the  South  where  churches  were  planted  and  grouped  into  associa- 
tions, and  the  foundations  were  laid  for  a  Baptist  advance  that  has  made 
the  denomination  one  of  the  most  prominent  throughout  the  Soutli. 
A  little  later  through  the  same  Philadelphia  influence  New  England 
Baptists  recognized  church  fellowship  by  organizing  an  association. 
These  organizations  were  strictly  Hmited  to  the  functions  of  fellowship 
and  advice,  and  had  no  right  to  exercise  authority  in  apy  way.  The 
result  was  individual  independence,  and  a  pure  democracy  in  govern^ 
ment,  but  weakness  in  denominational  solidarity. 

Note  4.  Baptist  Confessions.  Baptists  have  never  had  a  liking  for 
creeds.     A  declaration  of  one's  own  faith,  or  the  confession  adopted  by 


198  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^""" 

a  particular  church,  is  held  to  be  as  valuable  as  the  creed  of  an  ecu- 
menical council.  Yet  English  Baptists  did  not  hesitate  to  agree  upon 
an  adaptation  of  the  Westminster  Confession,  and  this  adapted  con- 
fession was  adopted  by  the  Philadelphia  Baptists  in  1742,  and  became 
the  standard  of  faith  for  American  Baptists  south  of  that  section. 
Northern  Baptists  adopted  milder  Calvinistic  statements  in  the  New 
Hampshire  Confession  of  1833. 

Note  5.  Missionary  Undertakings.  Evangelistic  fervor  was  .char- 
acteristic of  American  Baptists.  When  the  country  was  only  beginning 
to  be  settled  away  from  the  seaboard  counties,  evangelists  and  mission- 
aries pushed  into  the  interior,  endured  the  hardsliips  and  dangers  of 
the  forests,  gathered  the  people  in  their  log  cabins  or  in  camp  meetings 
in  the  woods,  and  preached  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Christian 
gospel  as  they  were  interpreted  by  Protestants.  There  was  nothing 
peculiar  about  the  doctrines  of  those  frontier  preachers,  but  they  put 
an  emphasis  on  sin  and  the  need  of  divine  grace  in  Jesus  Christ  to  save 
from  sin,  and  when  repentance  had  brought  the  experience  of  conver- 
sion, they  buried  their  converts  in  baptism  in  the  waters  of  lake  or 
stream.  They  held  to  immersion  as  the  appropriate  form  of  baptism 
symbolic  of  the  death  of  the  old  life  and  resurrection  to  a  new  and  holier 
life;  baptism  was  never  regarded  as  of  sacramental  power  to  save  from 
sin.  In  this  way  Baptists  increased  in  number  all  along  the  frontier 
from  Maine  and  Nova  Scotia  to  the  far  southwest  and  eventually  to 
the  Pacific  coast. 

For  a  considerable  time  there  was  no  missionary  organization. 
Churches  sent  out  their  pastors  and  others;  associations  commissioned 
missionaries;  until  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  voluntary  societies 
were  organized  to  carry  on  missionary  enterprise.  About  that  time 
both  English  and  American  Baptists  awoke  to  the  duty  of  sending 
missionaries  to  foreign  lands  to  propagate  Christianity.  The  result  was 
the  organization  of  Enghsh  and  American  foreign  missionary  societies, 
which  did  more  than  anything  else  to  solidify  the  denomination. 
William  Carey  laid  the  foundations  of  modern  missionary  enterprise 
in  India,  and  Adoniram  Judson  in  Burma.  These  undertakings  have 
been  enlarged  until  Baptist  missionaries  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  contributions  amounting  to  nearly  two  milhon  dollars 
annually  are  supplied  for  missionary  interests  at  home  and  abroad  by 
American  Baptists  alone. 

Note  6.  Divisions.  Unfortunately  there  came  breaks  in  the  ranks 
of  American  Baptists.  Differences  over  Calvinism  produced  the  Free- 
will Baptists,  who  have  recently  reunited  with  the  regular  body.     Cer- 


TUrty-seten  fj^^  Baptists  and  their  Principles  199 

tain  peculiarities  of  individual  Baptists  west  of  the  Alleghanies  led  to 
the  organization  of  the  Campbellites  or  Disciples,  who  have  grown  to  be 
over  a  million  and  a  quarter  in  number.  Differences  over  slavery  led 
to  the  separation  of  Northern  and  Southern  Baptists  in  1845,  and  to  the 
formation  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention.  There  are  several  other 
small  bodies  with  various  pecuharities.  The  Baptist  family  properly 
includes  all  who  practice  immersion  upon  believers  only,  and  who 
organize  themselves  on  the  Congregational  model. 

Note  7.  Growth  and  Consolidation.  Neither  in  England  nor  in 
America  have  Baptists  had  a  spectacular  history.  Their  interests  have 
been  evangelistic  rather  than  creedal,  and  they  have  not  been  vexed 
with  questions  of  church  government.  They  have  enjoyed  a  steady, 
and  for  the  most  part  rapid  growth  m  all  English-speaking  lands.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  towards  greater  consolidation 
of  interests.  Nearly  all  English  Baptists  united  in  a  Baptist  Union  in 
1901.  Six  years  later  American  Baptists  in  the  North  organized  a 
Northern  Baptist  Convention  to  bring  together  all  the  interests  of  the 
denomination;  and  this  was  preceded  by  a  friendly  conference  between 
North  and  South,  which  took  the  form  of  a  permanent  General  Con- 
vention. Finally,  a  Baptist  World  Alliance  has  been  organized  to  bind 
together  Baptists  everywhere,  an  organization  that  seeks  especially  to 
protect  the  struggling  Baptists  of  Russia  and  other  parts  of  the  European 
Continent.  Baptists  in  all  the  world  number  approximately  seven  and 
a  half  miUions,  and  in  the  United  States  rank  second  among  Protestant 
denominations. 

Note  8.  Baptist  Principles.  Baptists  have  been  loyal  to  the  evan- 
gelical interpretation  of  the  Bible.  They  have  been  individualistic  from 
the  beginning,  maintaining  that  the  prime  essential  of  religion  is  a  con- 
scious right  relationship  between  the  individual  and  God  through  Jesus 
Christ.  Because  of  this  personal  relationship  no  priest  may  mediate 
with  God,  or  state  official  interfere  to  prevent  private  judgment  and 
personal  freedom.  Baptists  were  slow  to  organize,  and  when  churches 
were  formed  only  those  were  received  into  membership  who  had  come 
to  years  of  understanding,  when  conscious  relationship  with  God  is 
possible  and  when  one  may  reaUze  his  duty  with  regard  to  the  church 
and  the  larger  kingdom.  Only  such  were  baptized  and  received  to  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Baptists  have  held  to  immersion  as  the  mode  of 
baptism  of  Jesus  himself,  and  as  the  most  appropriate  form  of  an 
ordinance  which  is  purely  symbolic.  In  America  it  has  been  the  cus- 
tom until  recent  years  to  welcome  to  the  Lord's  Supper  only  those 
Christians  who  have  been  immersed,  but  in  England  "  open  commun- 


£00  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^**^'^ 

ion"  has  been  the  usual  practice,  and  there  are  many  Baptist  churches 
of  mixed  membership. 

Although  strongly  individualistic,  Baptists  stood  for  social  right- 
eousness in  the  days  of  the  German  Reformation,  and  Baptists  have 
organized  for  social  progress  in  late  years  in  common  with  all  the  leading 
Christian  denominations.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  emphasize 
larger  and  more  efficient  church  acti\ity  in  the  interests  of  all  classes 
and  peoples,  while  at  the  same  time  the  old  emphasis  upon  personal 
experience  is  not  lost.  The  problem  of  the  hour  is  at  the  same  time  to 
preserve  the  old  and  to  keep  step  with  the  new. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  has  made  Roger  Williams  famous .^^ 

2.  Why  was  he  banished  from  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony? 
S.  Where  did  he  settle.? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  W'ho  were  the  Anabaptists.? 


2.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  English  Baptists.? 

3.  What  were  some  of  the  early  Baptist  principles.? 

4.  How  did  American  Baptists  organize  for  fellowship? 

5.  What  do  Baptists  think  about  creeds? 

6.  How  did  they  carry  on  evangelistic  missions  in  this  country? 

7.  To  what  extent  are  they  interested  in  foreign  missions? 

8.  How  did  American  Baptists  become  divided? 


Thirty-eight    Christianity  for  the  Working  People  of  England         201 

9.  Explain  methods  of  consolidation. 

10.  What  do  Baptists  stand  for  to-day? 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Burrage:  History  of  the  BajMsts  in  New  England.  {2)  Article 
"  Baptists  "  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  {3)  Vedder:  Church  Histoty 
Handbooks,  IV,  on  Baptist  History. 


Lesson  38.     CHRISTIANITY  FOR  THE  WORKING  PEOPLE  OF 
ENGLAND.    Wesley,  the  Evangelist  and  Social  Reformer. 

Sources. — Wesley's  journal,  letters,  and  sermons;  Hymns  of  Charles  Wesley; 
Brown's  Estimates  of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of  the  Times;  Methodist 
Conference  Minutes. 

Suggestions  for  Study.— 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Points  to  be  noted  especially  are: 
(a)  the  life  of  the  English  people;  (6)  the  religious  experiences  of  Wesley;  (c) 
his  preaching;  (rf)  Methodist  organization;  (e)  the  social  helpfulness  of  Wesley. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  Why  is  social  service 
a  necessary  part  of  religious  activity.? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(6)  Make  a  list  of  the  social  activities  of  John  Wesley,  (c)  Prepare  a  diagram,  or 
a  section  of  the  map  of  England,  to  show  how  Wesley  organized  Methodism. 
(d)  Write  an  imaginary  sketch  of  the  coal  miners  listening  to  the  preaching  of 
Wesley,     (e)  Write  a  brief  essay  on  the  hymns  of  Charles  Wesley. 

Note  1.  The  Common  People  of  England.  The  masses  of  Eng- 
land were  little  affected  by  the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
or  even  by  the  Separatist  movement  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Tltey 
accepted  with  good  humor  whatever  alterations  were  made  in  creeds 
and  prayer  books,  but  their  lives  were  not  changed.  They  had  no 
educational  advantages;  their  morals  were  not  well  developed;  they 
had  few  religious  aspirations.  In  their  every  day  living  they  were  not 
ambitious.  As  farmers  they  toiled  in  the  fields  in  old-fashioned  ways; 
as  miners  they  plodded  underground  in  a  dull  routine.  They  yielded 
to  brute  passions,  and  often  seemed  little  better  than  animals.  They 
consumed  immense  quantities  of  liquors  of  the  worst  sort.     Their  lives 


202  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'^"'^ 

were  a  dull  round  of  drudgery  and  sluggish  animalism.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  seemed  as  if  the  English  people  had  reached  the  lowest 
depths  of  immorality  and  irreligion.  Many  among  the  higher  classes 
were  debauched  and  skeptical;  members  of  the  lower  classes  were  too 
often  superstitious  and  beastly.  If  ever  a  nation  needed  a  spiritual 
quickening  that  would  probe  to  the  depths  of  human  nature,  that  na- 
tion was  England  in  the  early  eighteenth  century. 

Note  2.  The  Awakening  of  John  Wesley.  In  1703  John  Wesley 
was  born  in  an  English  rectory  in  Epworth,  where  his  father  was  a 
clergyman  of  the  Anghcan  church.  He  inherited  unusual  gifts  from 
his  mother,  and  in  process  of  time  he  was  educated  for  the  ministry. 
Like  most  prospective  clergymen  of  the  church  of  England  he  had  had 
no  special  rehgious  experience.  At  Oxford  University  there  was  little 
serious  application  to  study  in  those  days.  Teachers  and  pupils  took 
life  as  easily  as  possible,  and  Wesley  enjoyed  it  with  the  rest.  Yet  he 
was  of  a  sufficiently  serious  disposition  to  lead  him  to  earnest  thinking, 
and  before  his  years  at  Oxford  were  over  he  became  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  earnest  young  men,  who  were  generally  ridiculed  and  dubbed  Metho- 
dists, because  they  scrupulously  maintained  the  forms  of  religion  and 
interested  themselves  in  philanthropy.  Six  years  later  John  Wesley 
and  his  brother  Charles  sailed  for  the  new  colony  of  Georgia,  where 
they  attempted  religious  leadership,  but  with  little  success.  On  the 
voyage  the  brothers  had  fallen  in  with  a  company  of  Moravians,  who 
influenced  John  Wesley  so  deeply  that,  upon  his  return  to  London,  he 
attended  a  Moravian  service,  and  there  he  received  a  religious  awaken- 
ing that  he  describes  by  saying:  "  I  felt  my  heart  strangely  warmed. 
I  felt  I  did  trust  in  Christ,  Christ  alone  for  my  salvation;  and  an  assur- 
ance was  given  me  that  He  had  taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine." 

Note  3.  George  Whitefield.  One  of  Wesley's  religious  company 
at  Oxford  was  George  Whitefield,  the  son  of  a  tavern  keeper.  Inspired 
with  rehgious  enthusiasm,  he  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  church  and 
became  a  powerful  preacher.  His  pulpit  method  was  different  from 
that  of  the  clergy,  and  their  disHke  of  him  led  him  to  open-air  preaching. 
He  had  a  dramatic  energy  and  a  power  to  sway  the  emotions  that  made 
him  very  effective  with  the  people.  Twenty  thousand  colliers  gathered 
to  hear  him  at  Bristol,  and  he  swayed  them  as  a  hurricane  moves  the 
leaves  of  the  trees.  He  visited  America  several  times,  and  on  his  first 
journey  through  the  seaboard  colonies  he  received  a  great  ovation. 
Boston  Common  was  the  only  place  that  would  hold  the  crowds  when 
he  preached  in  that  town,  and  he  became  the  leading  agent  of  the 
"  Great  Awakening."     Wesley  and  Whitefield  did  not  agree  in  theology. 


Thirty-eight  Christianity  for  the  Working  People  of  England  203 

Wesley  and  his  followers  rejected  Calvinism,  while  Whitefield  main- 
tained it,  but  they  worked  in  sympathy,  though  not  in  co-operation. 

Note  4.  Wesley  as  an  Evangelist.  It  was  through  the  influence 
of  Whitefield  that  Wesley  overcame  his  High  church  scruples,  and 
resorted  to  preaching  out  of  doors.  The  kind  of  message  that  they  had 
to  give  was  not  pleasing  to  Anglican  churchmen  of  that  day.  They 
were  too  evangelical.  The  usual  Anglican  teaching  was  that  through 
the  church  the  individual  finds  his  way  to  God  and  heaven;  Wesley 
and  Whitefield  had  a  message  like  the  prophets  of  Israel.  They 
preached  the  blackness  of  sin  and  the  terrors  of  everlasting  punishment 
with  an  energy  that  tlu-illed  their  hearers.  They  pointed  out  the  way 
of  salvation  through  Christ  by  the  grace  and  mercy  of  a  forgiving  God. 
That  was  what  stirred  the  hearts  of  the  sodden  millions  of  England's 
laboring  folk,  for  they  knew  that  their  fives  were  sinful. 

Wesley,  like  Whitefield,  was  very  successful  at  Bristol,  and  there  his 
first  chapel  was  erected.  It  soon  became  the  practice  to  build  Methodist 
chapels  wherever  the  common  people  responded  to  the  message  of 
Wesley.  In  London  an  abandoned  government  workshop  was  pur- 
chased and  christened  the  "  Foundry."  Tliis  became  the  home  of 
Wesley  and  the  Methodist  headquarters.  By  these  means  England 
was  stirred  religiously  as  it  never  had  been  before,  and  while  an  inevit- 
able emotional  reaction  was  felt,  from  this  time  the  revival  method 
became  used  by  the  strongly  evangelical  denominations. 

Note  5.  Hymns  of  the  Methodist  Awakening.  Every  great  re- 
ligious revival  has  been  accompanied  by  an  outburst  of  sacred  song. 
Methodism  contributed  generously  to 'the  hymnody  of  the  church. 
The  Wesley  family  were  leaders  in  giving  suitable  hymns  to  the  people. 
John  Wesley  translated  German  hymns,  and  his  brother  Charles  wrote 
several  thousand  spiritual  songs;  some  of  which  find  a  place  in  every 
modern  hymn  book.  The  ministry  of  music  has  led  many  a  soul  into 
harmony  with  Him  who  created  the  music  of  the  spheres.  Without 
the  hymns  of  Charles  Wesley  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  preaching  of 
John  Wesley  would  have  been  so  effective. 

Note  6.  Organization.  John  Wesley  had  no  intention  of  creating 
a  new  denomination.  He  had  experienced  an  awakening  of  soul  that 
made  it  imperative  for  him  to  be  a  prophet  to  the  masses  of  England. 
He  would  have  been  most  happy  if  he  could  have  stirred  the  whole 
Anglican  church  to  a  new  spiritual  experience,  but  when  this  proved 
impossible  he  was  glad  to  go  to  the  people  of  the  open  country  and  the 
busy  town  and  gather  them  into  his  chapels.    Thus  Methodism  re- 


204 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'<'" 


mained  for  years  a  popular  movement  within  the  bounds  of  Anglican- 
ism, but  requiring  some  new  machinery. 

Wesley  had  a  genius  for  organization,  and  it  required  a  genius  to 
finance  the  enterprise.  The  people  were  poor.  It  was  only  by  a 
penny  a  week  that  groups  of  twelve  collected  small  funds,  but  these 
became  large  sums  in  the  aggregate.  These  groups  became  classes  and 
the  penny  collector  became  spiritual  leader  of  the  group,  and  the  result 
was  the  class  meeting  which  has  been  so  helpful  and  so  characteristic 
of  Methodism.  Finally  in  1740  English  Wesleyans  organized  at  Lon- 
don a  "  United  Society,"  which  became  in  time  the  Methodist  denom- 
ination. 

Note  7.  The  Workers.  The  founder  of  Methodism  faced  two 
great  difficulties.  The  first  was  the  lack  of  trained  leaders.  It  was 
necessary  to  resort  to  laymen  for  preachers.  Francis  of  Assisi  was  the 
one  man  who  had  dared  to  intrust  such  religious  work  to  unordained 
men,  but  the  need  of  Wesley  was  too  great  for  him  to  hesitate.  Since 
then  the  activity  of  laymen  has  steadily  increased  in  all  denominations. 
The  organization  promptly  took  on  the  methods  that  have  been  char- 
acteristic of  the  Methodists.  Preachers,  instead  of  being  located  per- 
manently, became  itinerants.  Most  of  them  were  uneducated,  and 
soon  lost  their  usefulness  in  a  particular  place.  It  was  customary  for 
them  to  minister  to  a  group  of  stations  which  constituted  a  circuit. 
With  wonderful  energy  Wesley  superintended  all  these  arrangements, 
and  brought  all  his  workers  together  for  an  annual  conference. 

Note  8.  Social  Service.  The  second  great  difficulty  that  Wesley 
faced  was  the  ignorance  and  poverty  of  the  people.  The  result  was 
that  he  becam-C  more  of  a  social  worker  than  a  theologian.  Like  Francis 
of  Assisi  again,  he  was  too  busy  ministering  to  physical  and  spiritual 
need  to  take  time  for  deep  thinking.  In  most  respects  Methodist  the- 
ology has  differed  little  from  that  of  other  evangelical  churches.  The 
great  exception  has  been  that  the  Methodists  rejected  Calvinism  in  a 
day  when  it  was  accepted  by  other  Protestant  bodies,  and  Methodists 
believed  in  an  evangehcal  type  of  Arminianism.  Wesley  was  so  sure 
that  God's  grace  was  free  to  all  that  he  could  not  accept  the  doctrines 
of  election  and  predestination. 

Wesley  saw  the  need  of  educating  the  children  of  the  working  people, 
and  day  schools  and  Sunday  schools  became  a  part  of  the  Methodist 
system.  He  provided  also  an  abundance  of  good  hterature  for  his 
people,  writing  and  editing,  and  providing  cheap  editions  for  those  who 
had  little  money.  All  humanitarian  endeavor  appealed  to  him,  and 
philanthropy  became  an  important  part  of  Methodism  alongside  evan- 


Thlrtu-cight  Christianity  for  the  Working  People  of  England  205 

gelism.  Wesley  organized  charity,  and  found  means  of  employment 
for  those  who  needed  it.  He  encouraged  Methodist  women  to  engage 
in  visiting  the  sick.  He  founded  orphanages  and  hospitals.  He  set  up 
the  first  free  medical  dispensary.  There  were  many  poor  who  needed 
temporary  help,  and  these  were  aided  from  a  loan  fund  that  he  secured. 
By  this  means  he  relieved  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  people  in  a 
year  and  a  half.  Wesley  opposed  slavery  and  the  use  of  liquors,  and 
the  Methodists  became  foremost  in  the  labor  union  movement.  In 
this  variety  of  ways  Methodism  showed  its  interest  in  social  reform  as 
well  as  in  individual  salvation,  and  Wesley  anticipated  many  of  the 
methods  of  the  modern  institutional  church. 

Note  9.  The  Founder  of  Methodism.  John  Wesley  must  rank  as 
one  of  the  great  men  of  Christian  liistory.  He  was  a  man  of  strong 
personality  and  deep  earnestness.  A  less  eloquent  preacher  than  White- 
field,  he  spoke  with  power  in  a  degenerate  age,  and  he  produced  a  new 
type  of  minister.  Thackeray  in  his  lecture  on  George  II  strikingly 
writes:  "  No  wonder  that  Whitefield  cried  out  in  the  wilderness,  that 
Wesley  quitted  the  insulted  temple  to  pray  on  the  hillside.  I  look  with 
reverence  on  those  men  at  that  ti«me.  Which  is  the  sublimer  spectacle — 
the  good  John  Wesley  surrounded  by  his  congregation  of  miners  at  the 
pit's  mouth,  or  the  queen's  chaplains  mumbling  tlu-ough  their  morning 
office  in  their  ante-room,  under  the  picture  of  the  great  Venus,  with  the 
door  opened  into  the  adjoining  chamber  of  the  queen.?  "  Wesley's 
organizing  ability  was  remarkable,  and  was  most  opportune.  It  is 
difficult  to  see  how  the  movement  of  Methodism  could  have  acquired 
permanence  without  that  quality.  It  was  his  task  to  grip  the  common 
people  of  England  and  drag  them  out  of  the  mire  in  which  they  were 
content  to  wallow,  and  it  is  his  glory  that  he  was  willing  to  give  his  hfe 
to  that  task  and  to  accomplish  so  much.  It  is  often  said  that  Metho- 
dism saved  England  from  an  eighteenth  century  revolution  like  that 
of  France.  However  that  may  be,  no  religious  and  moral  awakening 
ever  came  to  England  that  has  equalled  in  power  and  importance  the 
Wesleyan  revival. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  are  the  leading  principles  of  the  Baptists.? 

2.  How  do  they  rank  among  other  Protestant  bodies? 

3.  What  is  their  missionary  record.? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  the  condition  of  the  masses  of  the  English  people. 


206  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ■^^**<"' 

2.  Explain  Wesley's  religious  awakening. 

3.  Who  was  Whitefield? 

4.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  new  preaching? 

5.  What  were  the  first  Methodist  centers? 


6.  What  was  the  special  contribution  of  Charles  Wesley  to  the  Meth- 
odist movement? 


7.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  Methodists  by  their  founder. 


8.  Where  did  Methodism  get  its  preachers? 


9.  Define  the  Methodist  theology. 


10.  Describe  the  social  service  of  Wesley  and  his  friends. 


Reading  References. 
(1)  Banfield:  John  Wesley.     {2)  Walker:  Great  Men  of  the  Christian 
Church,  ch.  18.     {3)  Article  on  Methodism  in  Bliss:  New  Encyclopedia 
of  Social  Reform, 


Thirty-nine  fhe  Methodists  207 

Lesson  39.    THE  METHODISTS.    What  Methodism  Stands  for. 

Sources. — The  materials  for  Methodist  history  consist  of  the  records  of  con- 
ferences and  conventions,  and  the  writings  and  addresses  of  Methodist  leaders. 
A  satisfactory  list  of  material  is  printed  in  Buckley's  History  of  Methodism  in 
the  United  States. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  marks  of 
each  denomination;  (b)  the  story  of  the  Wesleyans  in  Great  Britain;  (c)  the 
organization  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States;  (d)  the 
characteristics  of  Methodism. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  sp>ecial  class  discussion:  Are  revivals 
a  helpful  stimulus  to  true  religion .f*  Is  there  any  relation  between  revivals  and 
denominational  growth.'' 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  all 
the  summaries  are  properly  completed  for  the  quarter,  (b)  Make  a  table 
showing  what  each  of  the  denominations  studied  has  contributed  to  the  common 
good,  (c)  Write  a  brief  sketch  showing  the  importance  of  Methodism  in  the 
history  of  Anglo-Saxon  Christianity,  (d)  Write  an  account  of  a  Methodist 
camp  meeting,  as  may  be  learned  from  reading  or  from  the  memory  of  older 
people. 

Note  1.  The  Spirit  of  Denominationalism.  It  has  been  the  boast 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  that  it  maintains  the  unity  of  the  faith, 
and  Protestants  have  been  accused  often  of  introducing  divisions  into 
the  church.  There  is  to-day  among  Protestant  churches  a  growing 
disposition  to  get  together.  Yet  it  is  well  to  remember  that  denomina- 
tionalism has  not  been  altogether  evil.  In  its  beginnings  denomina- 
tionalism was  a  mark  of  independent  thinking.  The  Protestant  Refor- 
mation introduced  an  age  when  the  individual  began  to  count  for  what 
he  was  worth,  and  when  he  began  to  think  for  himself.  Differences  in 
religious  thinking  were  unavoidable.  Denominations  were  groups  of 
those  who  thought  alike  with  regard  to  certain  important  matters  in 
religion.  Each  of  the  great  denominations  stood  for  a  particular 
emphasis,  and  in  each  case  the  emphasis  was  needed. 

Take  the  history  of  Anglo-Saxon  Christianity.  The  Anglican  church 
stood  for  independence  from  the  hierarchy  of  Rome,  for  an  English 
rather  than  a  Roman  church.  That  was  the  first  step.  A  great  many 
in  the  English  church  were  Puritans,  and  wished  to  go  farther  away 
from  the  Roman  customs,  but  as  long  as  they  preferred  church  unity  to 
denominationalism  the  truths  for  which  they  stood  were  not  generally 
accepted.  Some  of  them  thought  the  Presbyterian  origin  and  discipline 
so  important  that  they  sacrificed  unity  and  tried  to  establish  a  Presby- 
terian church.  Others  after  a  little  thought  that  the  independence  of 
the  congregation  was  more  important  than  unity  or  strength  of  organiza- 
tion, and  they  became  Separatists,  and  in  some  cases  Pilgrims,  and 


208  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^""^ 

established  Congregationalist  churches.  Some  of  these  Congregation- 
ahsts,  feehng  that  Hberty  was  not  complete,  that  individual  experience 
was  not  sufficiently  emphasized,  and  that  New  Testament  baptism  was 
not  observed,  withdrew  and  organized  Baptist  churches.  These  inde- 
pendent Congregationalist  and  Baptist  churches  in  time  recognized 
bonds  of  fellowship,  and  each  group  became  a  denomination.  Last  of 
all,  others  still  in  the  Anglican  church  awoke  to  the  spiritual  need  of  the 
common  people,  and  they  sacrificed  their  Anglicanism  for  the  sake  of 
the  need,  and  organized  the  Methodist  denomination  along  lines  that 
the  circumstances  demanded. 

In  these  days  the  spirit  of  mutual  interest  and  social  solidarity  is  over- 
coming the  spirit  of  denominationalism  and  producing  helpful  co- 
operation, if  not  union,  but  denominations  have  met  a  religious  need, 
and  the  emphasis  of  each  must  not  be  overlooked  in  the  praiseworthy 
desire  for  unity. 

Note  2.  The  Task  of  Methodism.  The  Methodists  came  into 
existence  because  of  a  new  vision  of  the  spiritual  need  of  the  masses  of 
the  English  people  and  the  spiritual  power  of  the  simple  gospel  of  Jesus. 
It  made  philanthropy  a  part  of  its  task  because  of  the  poverty  and 
ignorance  of  the  people  to  whom  it  ministered.  With  small  means  this 
infant  denomination  heroically  undertook  to  convert  and  improve 
materially  the  millions  of  common  folk  who  were  almost  uninfluenced 
by  the  established  church.  Manfully  the  new  church  went  about  the 
task.  The  organization  given  to  it  by  Wesley  approved  itself  to  the 
people  because  it  worked.  Efficiency  is  the  test  of  every  organization. 
The  itinerant  preachers  travelled  all  over  England.  Slowly  a  better 
trained  ministry  supplemented  with  their  wisdom  the  evangelistic 
fervor  of  the  lay  preachers,  but  the  spiritual  earnestness  of  the  preachers 
was  the  strength  of  the  movement.  Before  the  death  of  Wesley,  in 
1791,  Methodism  had  gained  a  foothold  in  America,  and  added  to  its 
task  on  this  side  of  the  great  water.  To  provide  a  leader  with  authority 
in  America  Wesley  ordained  Thomas  Coke  as  the  first  superintendent 
or  bishop.  With  the  same  methods  of  itinerant  evangelism  Methodism 
in  America  brought  spiritual  quickening  to  many  whom  the  older 
churches  did  not  reach.  In  the  South  and  on  the  frontiers  it  became 
a  power  to  build  up  the  forces  of  religion,  and  presently  its  rapid  growth 
made  it  one  of  the  leaders  among  the  evangelical  denominations  of  the 
United  States. 

Note  3.  Wesleyans  in  Great  Britain.  The  separation  from  the 
Anglican  church  was  due  primarily  to  the  lack  of  sympathy  of  the  Angli- 
can church  for  the  new  spiritual  message  of  Wesley  and  his  preachers,  and 


Thirty-nine  The  Metkodists  £09 

secondarily  to  the  fact  that  the  Methodist  preachers  were  not  admitted 
to  AngHcan  pulpits  and  were  looked  upon  as  inferiors,  and  to  the  fact 
that  large  numbers  of  adherents  of  Methodism  came  from  dissenting 
churches,  and  would  not  aflBliate  with  Anglicanism.  The  influence  of 
John  Wesley  was  so  strong  until  the  close  of  liis  life  that  the  break  was 
not  yet  complete;  when  it  came  the  Methodists  of  Great  Britain  called 
themselves  Wesleyans  from  the  name  of  their  leader,  and  as  Wesleyans 
continue  to  be  known.  The  death  of  Wesley  precipitated  certain  diffi- 
culties upon  the  church.  The  organization  of  administration  was  most 
important.  The  difficulty  of  superintendence  was  met,  not  by  the 
institution  of  a  bishopric  as  in  America,  but  by  the  organization  of 
districts,  each  with  a  committee  having  powers  of  administration  and 
discipHne.  All  district  committees  were  subject  to  the  general  confer- 
ence. English  Methodism  has  had  its  difficulties  of  organization,  and 
varieties  of  Methodists  are  found  in  England  as  in  America,  but  in 
general  there  was  united  progress.  Wesleyanism  never  became  strong 
in  Scotland,  Wales,  or  Ireland. 

Note  4.  Methodist  Beginnings  in  America.  The  first  Methodist 
congregation  in  America  came  together  in  1766  through  the  influence 
of  a  woman  in  New  York.  This  congregation  provided  a  preacher 
from  its  own  number,  who  organized  a  class  and  later  built  a  meeting- 
house. About  the  same  time  a  beginning  was  made  in  Maryland. 
The  Methodists  were  few  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  though  they 
had  organized  a  conference  two  years  before,  and  the  war  and  disagree- 
ments that  followed  nearly  worked  their  ruin.  It  was  then,  in  1784, 
that  Wesley  appointed  Coke  to  administer  Methodist  affairs  in  America, 
and  he  became  the  first  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church. 
The  difference  of  name  between  English  Wesleyans  and  American 
Methodist  Episcopals  corresponds  to  the  difference  in  organization. 
The  regular  Methodists  of  the  United  States  with  their  bishops  have  an 
organization  much  like  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  while  in  Eng- 
land the  Wesleyan  organization  is  much  more  like  the  Presbyterians. 
Francis  Asbury  had  long  acted  as  assistant  superintendent  in  America, 
and  Wesley  appointed  him  also  to  be  a  joint  superintendent  with  Coke. 
Complete  organization  was  effected  by  a  conference  in  Baltimore  at 
which  the  appointment  of  the  bishops,  or  superintendents,  was  ratified, 
and  a  Discipline  adopted  including  most  of  the  doctrinal  statements  of 
the  Anglican  church  as  modified  by  Wesley.  At  that  time  there  were 
in  the  United  States  about  eighteen  thousand  adherents  and  four  hun- 
dred preachers  and  exhorters.  Within  five  years  the  number  of  mem- 
bers increased  to  more  than  sixty  thousand. 


210  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"'*" 

Note  5.  Methodist  Fortunes  in  the  United  States.  The  rapid 
growth  of  Methodism  proved  the  success  of  its  spiritual  appeal  to  the 
people.  Its  methods  were  revivalistic,  and  it  was  a  time  when  an  emo- 
tional appeal  was  most  effective.  There  was  an  emphasis  upon  reli- 
gious experience  that  few  but  the  Baptists  had  given,  and  the  growth  of 
these  two  denominations  in  all  parts  of  the  country  showed  the  rehgious 
interest  of  the  plain  folk  of  America.  In  the  South  the  negroes  as  well 
as  the  whites  had  their  Methodist  and  Baptist  churches,  and  greatly 
swelled  the  total  membership  of  the  denominations.  Very  unfortu- 
nately the  slavery  issue  arose  between  Northern  and  Southern  Metho- 
dists, as  it  did  among  the  Baptists,  and  resulted  in  a  separation  that 
still  continues.  The  Methodists  had  other  troubles  and  other  divisions. 
The  rights  of  laymen  have  always  been  a  bone  of  contention,  and  the 
refusal  of  the  general  conference  to  grant  rights  asked  for  was  one  of 
the  leading  causes  of  the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
church  in  1830.  This  church  has  no  bishops.  Colored  Methodists  in 
the  United  States  are  organized  by  themselves  in  several  bodies,  chief 
of  which  are  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  church  and  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  church.  Questions  of  discipline  have  vexed 
the  Methodists  at  times  because  of  the  strictness  of  Methodist  require- 
ments; questions  of  church  order  at  times  have  been  disturbing;  but 
through  all  difficulties  the  denomination  has  grown  until  it  ranks  first 
among  all  the  Protestant  denominations  of  the  United  States,  numbering 
in  1911  about  6,800,000,  while  in  all  the  world  the  members  and  pro- 
bationers are  approximately  8,700,000. 

Note  6.  What  the  Methodists  Stand  for.  Certain  practices  which 
have  been  characteristic  of  Methodism  are  passing  away  with  the  chang- 
ing ideas  and  customs  of  the  times,  but  Methodism  has  maintained 
certain  fundamental  principles  upon  which  practices  are  based.  Among 
these  an  important  place  belongs  to  evangelism.  That  word  stands  for 
faith  in  the  gospel  of  Jesus  and  the  propagation  of  that  faith  through 
special  religious  appeals.  Methodists  therefore  have  been  conspicuous 
in  evangelistic  effort  in  the  home  country  and  in  missions  abroad. 
Camp  meetings  have  been  a  favorite  means  of  evangelistic  appeal. 
Accepting  the  universality  of  sin,  Methodists  stand  for  the  universality  of 
God's  grace,  and  for  the  co-operation  of  God  and  man  in  the  working 
out  of  individual  salvation.  A  belief  in  the  witness  of  the  Spirit,  giving 
assurance  of  forgiveness  and  even  of  a  kind  of  perfection,  has  been  a 
characteristic  of  Methodists.  In  their  ideas  and  practices  about  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper  Methodists  agree  with  Congregationalists 
and  Presbyterians.  A  love  feast  similar  to  that  of  the  early  disciples 
has  been  a  common  observance. 


Thirtynin0  The  Methodists  211 

Organization  is  episcopalian  in  American  Methodism,  but  the  esti- 
mate of  the  rank  of  bishops  is  quite  moderate.  Ministers  are  frequently 
called  elders.  Bishops  are  few,  and  have  large  sections  of  country  to 
administer.  Over  smaller  districts  they  appoint  district  supermtend- 
ents,  who  were  formerlly  called  presiding  elders.  These  are  selected 
from  among  the  ministers,  and  are  the  bishops'  assistants  for  local  ad- 
ministration. Regular  conferences  are  held,  beginning  with  the  weekly 
class  meeting  in  the  local  church,  and  culminating  in  a  general  confer- 
ence of  the  denomination  once  in  four  years.  In  these  ways  the  m- 
terests  of  the  denomination  are  maintained  and  efficiency  secured. 

Note  7.  The  Progress  of  Christiamty.  Religion  has  a  two-fold 
office.  Its  task  is  to  relate  the  individual  soul  to  God,  and  to  establish 
brotherly  relations  among  men.  Christiamty  fostered  personal  religion 
tlu-ough  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  the  Apostles,  but  through  pagan 
influences  the  individual  Christian  lost  touch  with  God,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  substituted  the  sacraments  for  faith.  One  after  an- 
other the  Protestant  denominations  have  stripped  off  the  covermgs  of 
the  plain  and  simple  truth  of  the  gospel,  and  have  emphasized  the  im- 
portance of  individual  religion  and  direct  approach  to  God.  The  mde- 
pendence  of  the  individual  from  the  priest,  then  from  the  estabhshed 
church,  then  from  the  control  of  the  state  in  religion,  and  the  importance 
of  a  close  observance  of  New  Testament  teaching  are  included  in  the 

story  of  progress.  .      ,     ,      •      •       xr 

But  Christianity  is  likewise  a  social  rehgion.  At  the  beginmng  ttie 
social  principle  breathed  through  the  message  of  Jesus,  found  expression 
in  the  primitive  organization  of  the  disciples,  and  shone  out  in  the 
brotherly  fellowship  of  Christians.  The  Catholic  church  did  not  lose 
the  social  emphasis  as  it  lost  the  spiritual  emphasis.  The  solidarity  of 
the  ecclesiastical  body  was  made  prominent.  Charity  held  a  large 
place.  Religion  had  a  very  real  place  in  family  and  social  life.  Prot- 
estants were  slow  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  social  duty.  Ger- 
man Anabaptists  and  English  Methodists  caught  its  meamng,  but  the 
emphasis  was  put  upon  the  gospel  for  the  individual.  But  Anglo-Saxon 
Christianity  in  all  its  denominational  forms  is  learning  the  importance 
of  the  social  as  well  as  the  evangelical  in  these  early  years  of  the  twen- 
tieth century,  and  in  the  church  of  the  future  both  will  find  an  equally 
prominent  place. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  Recent  Lessons. 

1.  Show  how  the  principle  of  religious  liberty  made  trouble  in  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 

2.  How  did  the  colony  of  Providence  originate? 


212  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

3.  What  liave  been  the  characteristics  of  the  Baptists? 

4.  How  did  there  come  to  be  Methodists? 

5.  Show  how  the  Methodists  became  interested  in  social  Christianity. 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Has  denominationahsm  hindered  the  growth  of  Christianity? 


2.  What  has  been  the  task  of  Methodism? 

3.  How  did  Wesley  provide  for  American  Methodism? 

4.  Why  did  Wesleyanism  become  separated  from  Anglicanism? 


5.  How  does  Methodist  organization  differ  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States? 


6.  Name  some  of  the  Methodist  difficulties  in  America. 


7.  How  do  the  Methodists  compare  in  numbers  with  other  denomina^ 
lions? 


8.  What  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  Methodism? 

9.  How  has  Christianity  fostered  personal  religion? 


10.  How  has   a  social   Christianity  shown  itself  in  the  Christian 
church? 


Thirty-nine  The  Methodists  213 

Reading  References. 
(i)  Vedder:  Handbooks  of  Church  Histonj,  III,  Part  II,  chs.  3,  5. 
{2)  Hurst:  Short  Histonj  of  the  Christian  Church,  pp.  531-538.     (3) 
Faulkner:  The  Methodists,     (^)  Hart;  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory, pp.  231-234. 


PART  IV 

The  Expansion  of  Christianity  in  The  Nineteenth 
Century 


Lesson  40.     CAREY  AND  THE  MISSIONARY  EMPHASIS.    The 
Gospel  in  the  Far  East. 

Sources. — Records  of  churches  and  missionary  societies;  letters  of  Carey; 
the  form  of  agreement  of  the  missionaries  at  the  Serampore  mission;  English 
and  American  Baptist  missionary  magazines. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  story  of  the  missionary  monks 
in  Lesson  11. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Notice  especially:  (a)  the  stirring 
of  the  missionary  spirit  in  Carey;  (6)  the  courage  with  which  he  overcame  diffi- 
culties at  home  and  abroad:  (c)  the  significance  of  his  life;  {d)  the  variety  of  his 
tasks. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion:  How  may  Christian 
missions  be  made  most  useful  in  the  new  China?  Why  is  Christian  education 
of  special  importance  in  that  coimtry.'^ 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Write  a  comparison  of  the  missionary  methods  of  the 
medieval  monks  and  those  of  modern  Protestant  missionaries,  (b)  Draw  a 
map  of  India,  locating  on  it  the  leading  cities  and  some  of  the  mission  stations 
of  the  denomination  with  which  you  are  connected,  (c)  Find  out  the  story  of  the 
life  of  Buddha,  and  write  a  brief  sketch  in  the  note-book,  {d)  Make  a  list  of 
ten  foreign  missionaries  who  have  been  prominent  during  the  last  ten  years  and 
the  countries  to  which  they  have  gone. 

Note  1.  The  Expansion  of  Christianity.  The  nineteenth  century 
was  marked  by  an  enlargement  of  Christian  interests,  and  a  new  con- 
ception of  social  ministry.  Hitherto  Chiristiamty  had  found  expression 
mainly  in  the  church,  and  the  characteristics  of  Christian  history  were 
largely  ecclesiastical  and  theological.  The  landmarks  of  history  in 
this  latest  period  are  different.  The  expansion  of  interest  includes 
foreign  and  home  missions,  and  the  fortunes  of  all  grades  of  human 
beings.  The  Christian  conscience  freed  the  slave  in  the  British  Empire 
and  in  the  United  States.  It  has  not  limited  itself  to  church  action, 
but  it  has  stimulated  social  endeavor  in  many  departments  of  life.  It 
has  warred  against  impurity,  intemperance,  disease,  and  poverty.  It 
has  worked  out  the  principle  of  brotherly  love  in  social  helpfulness  in 
city  and  country.  It  has  grappled  with  the  problems  of  thought  and 
activity  that  have  stirred  peoples  and  nations  in  the  last  fifty  years. 
In  all  these  ways  the  Christian  spirit  has  been  working  ever  more  widely 
in  an  attempt  to  make  real  the  Christian  ideal  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
This  Christian  spirit  has   vitalized  individual  human  lives.     It  has 

215 


216  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


built  religion  into  character.  It  has  grown  continually  more  powerful 
in  all  social  relationships.  It  is  the  dynamic  that  must  solve  the  prob- 
lems of  the  modern  age. 

Note  2.  A  Shoemaker's  Apprentice.  In  the  English  Midlands, 
where  many  a  stream  winds  between  the  corn  lands  and  green  pas- 
tures of  prosperous  farmers,  there  grew  up  a  weaver's  boy  in  the  late 
eighteenth  century,  who  became  one  of  the  famous  heroes  of  Christian 
history.  His  name  was  William  Carey.  Though  born  in  a  village 
about  midway  between  the  old  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
he  never  studied  at  either,  but  was  self-educated.  Though  his  father 
was  clerk  in  the  Anglican  parish,  the  boy  knew  nothing  of  how  the 
Anglican  church  won  its  independence  from  Rome  or  how  Puritanism 
strove  fbr  a  purer  worship.  After  an  unpromising  boyhood,  young 
Carey  was  apprenticed  to  learn  the  trade  of  shoemaking,  with  no 
prospect  of  any  higher  career  than  that  of  his  hard-working  father. 

Note  3.  Visions  of  Duty.  Two  years  after  he  began  his  appren- 
ticeship William  Carey  gained  a  new  understanding  of  religion  through 
the  influence  of  one  of  his  fellow  apprentices.  He  became  an  earnest 
Bible  student  and  accepted  Baptist  ideas  of  New  Testament  teaching, 
joining  a  Baptist  church.  His  new  religious  experience  led  him  to 
have  larger  aspirations.  It  seemed  to  him  that  he  could  make  more  of 
his  life  than  to  bend  his  back  over  a  shoemaker's  last.  He  began  to 
talk  on  religion  to  small  groups  of  his  friends,  and  presently  he  became 
pastor  of  a  poor  Baptist  church  with  a  salary  of  fifteen  pounds  a  year. 
Carey  had  already  married,  and  to  make  a. living  he  taught  school 
through  the  day,  cobbled  in  the  evening,  and  preached  on  Sunday. 
Few  men  who  were  compelled  to  live  so  hard  a  life  as  that  would  have 
had  any  wider  visions.  But  Carey  had  become  a  student.  He  had 
mastered  foreign  languages.  He  had  learned  something  of  the  world. 
He  had  found  out  its  religious  destitution,  and  he  felt  a  longing  that 
tingled  through  his  veins  to  send  the  gospel  of  the  English  Midlands 
beyond  the  seas  to  the  heart  of  paganism,  as  Jesus  had  commanded 
long  before. 

Note  4.  The  Expansion  of  Christianity.  The  grand  psean  of  Chris- 
tian conquests  did  not  come  ringing  down  the  centuries  to  Carey  as  it 
sounds  to  the  better  informed  Christian  world  to-day.  He  did  not 
know  the  full  tale  of  the  successive  victories  of  the  cross  over  the  altars 
of  pagan  Rome  or  of  the  German  forests.  He  may  never  have  heard  of 
Boniface  or  Ulfilas,  of  Xavier  or  Raymond  Lull.  But  Carey  heard 
the  call  of  God,  and  he  saw  something  of  the  need  in  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  the  story  of  the  cross  had  never  gone. 


^'"''^  Carey  and  the  Missionary  Emphasis  217 

The  great  missionary  conquests  of  Christian  liistory  were  won  h^ 
the  CathoHc  church.  Protestantism  thus  far  had  given  its  attention 
almost  exclusively  to  the  expansion  of  ideas.  On  the  continent  and 
in  England  the  reformers  had  done  their  work,  and  Wesley  and  his 
co-laborers  had  translated  Protestant  Christianity  into  the  language  of 
the  average  man.  Now  it  was  time  that  the  millions  of  Asia  and  the 
South  Sea  who  were  in  the  twilight  of  religious  superstition  should  be 
Christianized  by  English  Protestant  missionaries  sent  out  by  churches 
that  were  consecrated  to  a  missionary  propaganda. 

Note  5.  Overcoming  Obstacles.  The  path  of  the  pioneer  is  always 
full  of  obstructions.  Carey  found  little  sympathy  for  his  mission- 
ary ideas.  The  stern  Calvinism  that  filled  the  English  Baptist  churches 
found  small  place  for  evangelistic  endeavor.  Dr.  Ryland  expressed  it 
when  he  checked  the  enthusiasm  of  Carey  at  a  church  association  meet- 
ing with  the  words:  "  Sit  down,  young  man;  when  the  Lord  gets  ready 
to  convert  the  heathen  he  will  do  it  without  your  help  or  mine."  Dr. 
Ryland  had  baptized  Carey  a  few  years  before,  "  a  poor  journeyman 
shoemaker,"  as  he  recorded  in  his  diary.  Who  was  he  that  he  should 
be  dictating  a  missionary  policy  to  the  Almighty  or  to  the  churches.^ 
Then  the  sterling  qualities  that  were  in  the  half-starved  country  min- 
ister shone  forth.  In  spite  of  rebuke  he  persevered.  He  published  a 
missionary  tract,  and  he  got  another  opportunity  in  the  association 
which  he  used  effectively  to  deliver  an  epoch-making  discourse. 
It  was  then  that  he  spoke  on  the  theme  which  has  been  an  inspiration 
to  Christian  missionaries  ever  since:  "  Expect  great  things  from  God; 
attempt  great  things  for  God,"  He  followed  this  up  with  personal 
appeals;  and  on  the  second  of  October,  1792,  there  was  organized  at 
Kettering  through  his  instrumentality  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society, 
and  Carey  soon  set  sail  for  India  as  its  first  missionary. 

Note  6.  Why  Carey's  Enterprise  was  Epochal.  William  Carey  was 
not  the  first  English  Protestant  to  embark  on  the  enterprise  of  foreign 
missions.  Nor  does  the  glory  of  missionary  pioneering  belong  pri- 
marily to  the  Baptists.  Nevertheless  the  organization  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  of  Great  Britain  by  Carey  marks  an  epoch  in  Chris- 
tian history.  Before  1792  Protestant  missionary  effort  had  been  indi- 
viduaHstic  and  spasmodic,  except  for  the  Moravians.  After  1792  the 
missionary  enterprise  became  organized.  Episcopalians  and  Dis- 
senters alike  banded  themselves  together  in  voluntary  societies  to 
prosecute  Christian  missions  to  eastern  pagans.  In  less  than  twenty 
years  the  wave  of  missionary  enthusiasm  spread  to  America  so  effec- 
tively that  it  produced  similar  effects.     A  company  of  college  students 


218  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  "^^*""* 

under  a  haystack  in  western  Massachusetts  caught  the  impulse  and  did 
not  rest  until  they  had  compelled  the  Congregationalist  churches  to 
accept  them  as  evangelists  to  the  same  land  to  which  Carey  had  gone. 
Two  of  them  on  sliipboard  became  Baptists,  and  their  consecration  to 
missions  persuaded  American  Baptists  to  organize  for  the  same  great 
enterprise,  and  Adoniram  Judson  entered  upon  a  heroic  career  in 
Burma.  Meantime  Robert  Morrison,  with  sublime  faith,  faced  the 
most  disheartening  difficulties  of  a  mission  to  China,  and  for  thirty  years 
knocked  patiently  at  its  outer  portal  before  the  door  was  forced  ajar. 

Since  the  heroism  of  those  three  pioneers  hundreds  of  other  men  and 
women  have  trodden  the  pathway  that  they  blazed,  and  in  all  parts 
of  the  non-Christian  world  have  toiled  and  died  in  imitation  of  the 
Great  Evangehst  of  Galilee  and  Judea.  Because  of  them  Christianity 
can  never  again  lose  the  missionary  emphasis.  Today  it  is  pushing 
its  way  into  the  interior  of  Africa;  for  a  hundred  years  it  has  gained 
steadily  among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Its  greatest  task  has  been 
among  the  civilized  pagans  of  the  Far  East.  There  half  the  people  of 
the  world  have  stagnated  under  the  religious  influences  of  Hinduism 
and  more  degraded  cults  in  spite  of  the  moral  excellences  of  Buddhist 
and  Confucian  ideals.  Slowly  the  gospel  of  Jesus  has  secured  recogni- 
tion by  proud  Asiatic  empires,  but  with  every  year  the  victory  of 
Christian  principles  becomes  more  pronounced.  To  such  dimensions 
has  grown  the  feeble  enterprise  inaugurated  by  the  cobbhng  preacher 
of  Northamptonshire. 

Note  7.  Planting  the  Serampore  Mission.  Carey's  early  experi- 
ences in  India  were  not  encouraging.  For  a  time  he  and  his  family 
nearly  starved  because  the  missionary  attempted  to  earn  his  own  living. 
Then,  too,  the  East  India  Company,  which  really  governed  British 
India,  was  unfriendly  to  his  enterprise.  After  seven  months  he  was 
compelled  to  accept  an  opportunity  to  act  as  superintendent  of  an 
indigo  factory  north  of  Calcutta.  Here  for  five  years  he  labored  at 
his  task  and  in  preparation  for  later  missionary  work.  He  mastered 
the  Bengali  tongue,  and  made  a  translation  of  parts  of  the  Bible  into  it; 
he  set  up  a  printing  press;  and  he  preached  to  the  people  as  he  had 
opportunity. 

Six  years  after  Carey  reached  India  the  English  society  sent  out 
Marshman  and  Ward  to  reinforce  Carey,  and  with  them  the  pioneer 
established  himself  at  Serampore,  a  Danish  trading  station.  This 
was  in  1800.  The  three  missionaries  planned  a  community  enterprise, 
bought  a  large  building,  and  made  it  into  a  common  home  for  their 
families.    They  formed  a  Christian  brotherhood,  ate  their  meals  in 


Forty  -  Carey  and  the  Missionary  Emphasis  219 

common  and  with  economical  management,  and  put  the  money  that 
they  were  ^ble  to  save  into  a  missionary  fund.  The  ideals  of  Carey 
looking  to  self-support  were  realized.  For  many  years  the  brotherhood 
held  together,  and  it  is  asserted  that  in  the  space  of  fifty  years  nearly 
ninety  thousand  pounds  were  put  to  missionary  use.  This  made  it 
possible  for  the  Society  at  home  to  use  its  funds  elsewhere,  and  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Serampore  mission  assisted  greatly  in  similar  undertakings. 

Notes.  Educational  Missions.  With  characteristic  breadth  of 
vision  Carey  saw  the  place  that  education  must  hold  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Christianity  and  civilization  in  mission  lands.  He  realized,  as 
many  well-intentioned  people  have  not,  that  it  was  only  by  the  slow 
process  of  the  schools  that  the  foundations  of  solid  Christian  progress 
could  be  laid.  The  preaching  of  the  gospel  was  of  prime  importance, 
but  to  conserve  the  results  which  such  preaching  might  produce,  he 
thought  it  necessary  to  provide  for  Christian  nurture.  Thoroughly 
convinced  of  the  wisdom  of  tliis  policy,  the  Serampore  commumty  did 
not  hesitate  to  spend  large  sums  on  schools,  with  noteworthy  success. 

Note  9.  Carey  as  a  Linguist  and  Scientist.  This  missionary  pioneer 
had  a  remarkable  gift  for  acquiring  the  mastery  of  unfamiliar  languages. 
He  had  taught  himself  five  languages  before  he  left  England,  and  after- 
ward he  learned  how  to  use  many  more.  He  employed  this  talent  to 
prepare  Bible  translations  for  different  peoples.  In  a  little  over  twenty 
vears  he  put  forty  such  translations  tlirough  the  press;  more  than  halt 
of  these  were  translations  of  the  whole  New  Testament  made  by  him- 
self When  it  is  remembered  that  this  labor  was  accomplished  without 
the  scholarly  helps  of  the  present  day,  and  by  a  man  without  university 
trainino-,  and  that  the  translations  were  into  languages  that  lacked  all 
such  lit"erary  aids  as  grammar  and  dictionaries,  the  achievement  appears 
stupendous. 

He  was  with  all  the  rest  a  botanist  of  great  repute.  He  was  a  nature 
lover  from  boyhood.  On  his  missionary  compound  he  delighted  in 
making  a  botanical  garden  that  became  one  of  the  marvels  of  that 
region.  As  Carey  became  an  Asiatic  college  professor  of  languages 
because  of  his  proficiency  as  a  Hnguist,  so  he  became  a  valued  member 
of  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Society  of  India,  and  at  his  death 
was  honored  with  a  marble  bust  placed  to  his  memory  in  the  apartments 
of  the  Society. 

Note  10.  The  Honored  Dead.  After  forty-one  years  spent  in  India, 
Carey  found  rest  in  the  graveyard  of  the  mission  at  Serampore  in  the 
month  of  June,  1834.     England  honors  the  men  who  have  earned  her 


^20  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


flag  around  the  world.  She  counts  among  her  noble  dead  the  soldiers 
who  gave  India  to  the  British  Empire.  The  Christian  church  of  all 
time  will  honor  itself  by  cherishing  in  the  annals  of  its  history  the  lives 
of  the  men  who  have  extended  a  knowledge  of  Christian  truth,  and  not 
least  among  them  William  Carey,  who  had  most  to  do  with  making 
British  India  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

Questions  on  Lesson  11  in  Review. 

1.  Who  were  some  of  the  missionary  monks  of  the  Middle  Ages? 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  career  of  Boniface. 

3.  How  did  they  manage  the  enterprise? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  the  early  life  of  William  Carey. 


2.  What  visions  of  duty  came  to  him? 

3.  Explain  how  Christianity  had  been  expanding. 

4.  How  did  Carey  arouse  interest  in  foreign  missions? 

5.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  organization  of  the  first  society? 

6.  Why  is  Christian  expansion  in  the  East  so  desirable? 

7.  Relate  the  early  experiences  of  Carey  in  India. 

8.  Why  are  educational  missions  important? 


Forty-one  Christianity  on  the  American  Frontier  £^1 

9.  Why  were  Carey's  translations  so  remarkable? 

10.  How  does  Carey  compare  with  other  famous  Englishmen? 


Reading  References. 
{!)  Myers:  Life  of  Carey.     {2)  Vedder:  Christian  Epoch  Makers, 
ch.  15.     (3)  Rowe:  Carey  and  the  Land  of  India  (Envelope  Series  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  1910). 


Lesson  41.    CHRISTIANITY   ON  THE  AMERICAN  FRONTIER. 

Pioneers  in  the  West. 

Sources. — Records  of  denominational  Home  Mission  societies;  religious  peri- 
odicals; lives  of  missionary  pioneers;  Adams's  The  Iowa  Band;  Puddefoot's 
Minute  Man  on  the  Frontier. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson 
in  preparation  for  class  questions. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  with  special  note  of  the  following: 
(a)  the  beginnings  of  home  missions;  (b)  methods  of  organization;  (c)  the  diffi- 
culties; (d)  the  story  of  Marcus  Whitman. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion  in  class:  What  can 
home  mission  societies  do  for  the  immigrant?  What  can  the  local  church  do 
for  the  immigrant  in  the  community  .-* 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  complete. 
(6)  Write  an  imaginary  sketch  of  the  planting  of  the  Whitman  mission  among 
the  Nez  Perces  Indians,  (c)  Draw  a  map  of  the  Oregon  country  to  include 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho,  and  their  leading  cities.  On  the  margin  of  the 
map  write  a  list  of  the  chief  products  of  the  region,  (d)  Make  two  lists  of  six 
names  each,  the  first  containing  prominent  missionary  pioneers,  and  the  second 
prominent  missionary  colleges. 

Note  1.  Westward  Ho!  The  march  of  civiUzation  toward  the 
setting  sun  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  history. 
From  the  ancient  empires  of  the  East  to  Greece  and  Rome,  and  then 
to  Spain  and  France  and  England  the  star  of  empire  has  made  its  way. 
The  barriers  of  the  Atlantic  checked  the  westward  movement  until 
the  eve  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  ever  since  those  barriers  broke  the 
tide  of  emigration  has  swelled  until  at  last  the  West  has  met  the  Pacific 
East  from  oversea.     Alongside  the  marching  emigrant  the  Christian 


222  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Letson 


pioneer  has  kept  the  pace.  As  heroically  as  the  missionary  to  India  or 
China  he  has  endured  the  hardships  of  travel,  and  has  helped  to  break 
new  ground  all  along  the  advancing  frontier.  In  the  forests  of  the 
South  he  pitched  his  tent  and  held  a  campmeeting  that  stirred  the 
people  far  and  near.  On  the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  valley  he 
organized  the  settlers  into  churches  and  built  for  them  Christian  schools. 
On  the  rougher  plains  farther  west  and  in  the  mountains  beyond  he  rode 
to  ranch  or  mining  camp  and  with  the  courage  of  a  prophet  summoned 
those  whom  he  found  to  nobler  living.  In  the  midst  of  the  rush  for 
gold  he  went  on  another  search  to  California  and  Alaska.  In  the  latest 
emigration  to  the  wheat  lands  and  the  expanding  towns  of  the  Canadian 
Northwest  he  is  still  on  the  firing  line  doing  battle  for  righteousness. 

Note  2.  The  Progress  of  Settlement.  The  early  colonists  clung  to 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Starting  in  Virginia  and  Massachusetts,  they 
gradually  filled  the  spaces  between,  but  they  were  slow  to  move  beyond 
tidewater.  Mountains  barred  the  way  to  the  interior,  and  while 
colonial  days  lasted  there  was  httle  desire  to  get  away  from  the  sea 
beyond  which  lay  the  mother  land.  The  first  settlers  of  Massachusetts 
doubted  if  settlement  would  ever  go  many  miles  away  from  the  sea. 
But  when  the  fortunes  of  war  and  the  efforts  of  diplomacy  opened  to 
citizens  of  the  young  nation  a  limitless  western  empire,  the  opportunity 
for  a  greater  success  and  the  spice  of  adventure  lured  thousands  into 
the  great  unknown.  Streams  of  horses  and  wagons  began  to  flow 
through  the  passes  of  the  Alleghanies.  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were 
occupied.  The  "  Old  Northwest  "  above  the  Ohio  River  surrendered 
its  fields  and  forests.  By  and  by  the  emigrant  tide  reached  the  Missis- 
sippi and  passed  beyond,  to  spread  itself  over  the  western  plains  and  to 
cross  in  rivulets  through  the  passes  in  the  Rockies  and  the  Sierras  to 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Note  3.  The  First  Missionaries.  In  the  days  before  the  West  was 
open  at  all  ministers  from  the  older  settlements  itinerated  along  the 
fringe  of  civilization.  From  Massachusetts  they  went  into  Maine  and 
New  Hampshire,  from  Connecticut  into  New  York,  and  from  Phila- 
delphia into  the  South.  At  first  the  evangelistic  impulse  alone  moved 
them  to  undertake  this  ministry  at  large,  and  their  churches  were 
willing  to  have  them  go.  Some  were  sent  out  by  the  regular  organiza- 
tions of  churches.  The  Philadelphia  Association  of  Baptist  churches 
despatched  evangelists  to  the  South,  who  laid  the  foundations  of  Bap- 
tist growth  in  that  section.  The  Shaftesbury  Association  of  Vermont 
churches  experimented  by  sending  missionaries  to  the  western  New 
York  frontier  and  even  across  to  Canada.     The  first  act  of  the  General 


Forty-one 


Christianity  on  the  American  Frontier  223 


Assembly  of  Presbyterians,  organized  in  1789,  was  to  plan  a  home 
missionary  campaign,  and  even  before  that  date  the  Reformed  Church 
had  appointed  a  committee  to  provide  means  for  Christian  extension. 

Note  4.  The  Organization  of  Missionary  Societies.  Experience 
proved  that  the  best  method  of  carrying  on  regular  campaigns  was 
through  the  organization  of  such  societies  as  had  already  been  formed 
for  foreign  mission  propaganda.  Beginning  with  state  societies  in 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts,  the  Congregationalists  and  Baptists 
entered  on  a  new  era  of  activity.  They  did  not  confine  their  efforts 
to  the  limits  of  the  state,  but  sent  missionaries  to  all  the  edges  of  the 
unoccupied  country.  These  state  societies  were  followed  by  national 
organizations  which  undertook  the  common  task  on  a  larger  scale. 

Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians  resembled  each  other  in  all 
respects  except  the  method  of  church  government.  It  seemed  as  if 
this  small  difference  might  be  disregarded  in  the  work  of  providing 
religion  for  new  settlements;  so  the  two  denominations  combined  forces 
according  to  a  Plan  of  Union  drawn  up  in  1801,  and  for  fifty  years  they 
worked  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio.  For  var- 
ious reasons  the  Presbyterian  form  seemed  to  take  root  most  easily,  with 
the  result  that  Presbyterianism  strengthened  itself  at  the  expense  of 
the  sister  body.  The  result  was  good  for  the  new  settlements  in  that 
it  saved  them  from  an  unnecessary  number  of  churches,  but  the  Congre- 
gationalist  denomination  has  never  been  so  strong  in  that  section  as  it 
would  have  been  without  the  Union. 

Note  5.  Missionary  Statesmanship.  It  seems  remarkable  that  the 
evangelical  churches  of  the  United  States  should  have  awakened  simul- 
taneously to  the  importance  of  building  Christian  homes,  schools,  and 
churches  in  the  new  lands  of  the  West.  They  could  not  know  then 
that  in  time  to  come  the  Middle  West  would  be  the  dominant  power  in 
a  vast  union  of  American  States  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific.  They  only  knew  that  sons  and  brothers,  friends  and  acquaint- 
ances kept  going  out  from  the  home  communities  with  their  faces  to  the 
frontier,  and  they  knew  that  if  the  new  settlements  were  to  grow  strong 
and  prosperous  they  must  have  at  the  center  of  their  community  life 
the  institutions  of  religion.  And  so,  often  with  depleted  membership 
and  resources,  the  older  churches  toiled  and  sacrificed  to  provide  the 
money,  and  missionaries  faced  the  hardships  of  pioneering  that  the 
future  of  the  West  might  be  secure. 

Note  6.  Scouting  for  God.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how 
groups  of  emigrants  could  leave  their  comfortable  homes  in  the  East 


224  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'^ 

and  face  the  perils  of  forest  and  stream  and  plain.  They  expected  to 
win  a  larger  measure  of  prosperity  in  the  New  West,  and  the  rewards 
promised  to  outweigh  the  peril  and  hardship.  But  only  divine  love 
could  persuade  talented  men  and  well-born  women  to  begin  their  mar- 
ried life  en  route  for  the  mountain  and  the  prairie,  and  to  brave  every- 
thing for  the  sake  of  the  welfare  of  others.  In  these  days  when  modern 
railroad  trains  span  the  desert  stretches  and  chmb  the  dizzy  steeps, 
it  requires  imagination  to  picture  the  old  hfe.  The  first  itinerants 
found  only  pathless  forests  and  unforded  streams.  They  pushed  up 
unknown  rivers  in  frail,  heavily  laden  craft.  They. crossed  wastes  as 
dangerous  and  dreary  as  the  great  northern  ice-pack.  They  lived  in  the 
openthroughthedry  heat  of  summer  and  the  pitiless  cold  of  winter  storms. 
And  all  for  the  love  of  Clirist  and  the  people  for  whom  Christ  died. 

Then  came  the  slow  task  of  upbuilding.  Small  companies  of  Chris- 
tian people  must  be  encouraged  to  attempt  church  organization  and 
the  building  of  a  meeting-house.  The  few  children  must  be  gathered 
into  Sunday  schools.  Money  was  scarce  and  labor  was  in  constant 
demand.  Sometimes  the  missionary  had  to  put  up  his  own  shack,  and 
contribute  from  his  own  time  and  money  and  strength  to  erect  a  bare 
board  meeting-house.  But  he  did  not  shrink.  Then  by  the  side  of 
the  church  went  up  the  school  and  the  college.  The  old  Puritan  idea 
that  religion  and  education  were  twin  corner-stones  of  national  pros- 
perity was  not  abandoned  in  the  building  of  the  West.  Denomina- 
tional colleges  still  dot  the  country  from  East  to  West,  evidences  of  the 
faith  and  courage  of  the  pioneers. 

Note  7.  The  Iowa  Band.  In  several  cases  groups  of  young  men 
went  out  together  from  eastern  theological  schools  and  settled  near 
each  other  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Washington.  In  this  way 
the  strength  of  the  band  accomplished  what  individual  effort  could 
not  hope  to  do.  As  the  Haystack  Band  started  at  Williams  College, 
and  gathering  strength  at  Andover  Seminary  made  the  beginning  of 
the  foreign  mission  undertaking  in  America,  so  the  Iowa  Band  starting 
from  Andover  went  out  beyond  the  Mississippi  and  took  possession  of 
that  state  for  God.  Asa  Turner  and  Reuben  Gaylord  had  prepared 
the  way.  In  the  fall  of  1843  eleven  pioneer  preachers  camped  down 
upon  the  land  and  began  a  simultaneous  constructive  effort  to  build 
the  kingdom  of  God  on  the  acres  of  Iowa.  To  them  in  large  measure  is 
due  the  vigor  and  stalwart  worth  of  a  people  that  are  known  and  ad- 
mired all  over  the  country. 

Note  8.  Marcus  Whitman.  It  was  a  far  cry  across  the  vast 
reaches  of  the  trans-Mississippi  plains  and  over  the  lofty  ridges  of  the 


Forty-6ne  Christianity  on  the  American  Frontier  225 

Rockies  to  Oregon  in  the  year  1836.     But  an  opportunity  was  there. 
It  was  not  to  dig  for  gold,  nor  to  get  gain  from  apple  orchard  pr  grain 
field,  that  Marcus  Whitman  and  his  young  wife  started  on  their  bridal 
tour  to  a  region  that  was  far  harder  to  reach  than  India  or  Burma. 
They  were  o-oing  as  missionaries  to  the  Nez  Perces  Indians.     Three 
thousand  five  hundred  miles  stretched  before  them  to  the  Pacific  shore. 
Six  montlis  it  took  them  to  make  the  journey  amid  thrilling  experiences 
that  are  almost  unbehevable.     They  found  a  home  in   "  Beautiful 
Valley  "  where  they  established  a  mission  for  the  aborigines.     There 
must  have  been  lonely  hours  in  the  two  years  and  a  half  that  passed 
before  they  received  the  first  letters  from  home.     And  then  came  a 
crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Oregon  country.     Jesuit  priests  and  Hudson 
Bay  fur  traders  tried  to  push  out  the  United  States  from  what  was 
still  a  debatable  land.     Thousands  of  square  miles  of  the  greatest 
value  were  on  the  point  of  being  secured  by  Great  Britain.     Marcus 
Whitman  was   a  patriot  as  true  as  the   patriots   of  Lexington  and 
Bunker  Hill.     And  he  did  more  than  they.     In  the  dead  of  winter  he 
started  almost  alone  on  a  horseback  ride  to  the  East  to  confer  with 
the  government  at  Washington  and  to  get  settlers  from  New  Eng  and 
to  establish  the  American  claim  by  actual  occupancy.     After  incredible 
hardsliips  he  succeeded  in  accomplishing  both  purposes,  and  almost  a 
year  after  he  had  gone  forth  he  led  a  party  of  a  thousand  emigrants 
from  the  East  into  his  Oregon  valley.     Three  years  later  Whitman  and 
his  wife  and  twelve  others  were  massacred  by  unfriendly  Indians,  but 
the  Oregon  country  was  saved  to  the  United  States,  and  the  mission 
did  not  die. 

Note  9.  The  Meaning  of  Home  Missions.  Since  those  pioneer 
days  the  work  of  the  home  mission  societies  has  been  enlarged.  After 
1840  the  emigration  of  Europeans  presented  a  problem  that  has  grown 
with  the  years.  Indians  and  negroes  and  the  outlying  peoples  of  Mexico 
and  the  West  Indies  have  demanded  attention  and  help.  Catholics 
and  Mormons  have  been  threatening  perils  West  and  East.  Co- 
operative agencies  have  multiplied  to  meet  the  increasing  needs.  The 
foundation  work  is  done.  It  was  in  the  pioneer  days,  when  the  Ameri- 
can race  of  the  future  was  in  the  making  in  those  new  and  mighty 
states  of  the  great  West,  that  Christianity  found  means  of  expansion 
to  countless  homes  and  communities.  It  was  a  great  crisis  in  American 
history.  Without  the  pioneers  of  home  missions  and  the  efforts  of  the 
great  societies  there  would  have  been  grave  danger  that  the  nation 
would  never  have  been  able  to  meet  the  crises  that  have  come  already 
and  those  that  are  yet  in  the  future.    There  is  still  opportunity  for  heroic 


226  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


LcSdO.l 


work  East  and  West.  The  greatest  crises  of  American  history  are  still 
ahead.  In  the  storm  and  stress  of  the  days  which  shall  yet  be  there 
must  arise  successors  of  the  pioneers  who  will  do  battle  for  American 
and  Christian  ideals.  The  meaning  of  frontier  history  is  that  the  vic- 
tory is  worth  all  it  costs. 


Questions  on  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Who  was  William  Carey? 

2.  In  what  ways  was  his  life  notable? 

3.  What  do  Christian  missions  accomplish  in  the  East? 


Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 

1.  Describe  the  westward  march  of  civihzation,  and  show  the  part 
of  the  missionary. 


2.  How  was  missionary  pioneering  first  undertaken  in  the  United 
States? 


3.  How  did  voluntary  societies  set  to  work  in  the  West? 

4.  Why  did  the  churches  become  stimulated  to  missionary  activity? 

5.  Describe  the  diflSculties  of  pioneering. 

6.  Why  were  educational  institutions  established? 

7.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  Iowa  Band. 

8.  Sketch  the  heroic  life  of  Marcus  Whitman. 


FurLj-iwG  Wilherforce  and  Humanitarian  Endeavor  227 

9.  What  permanent  good  resulted  from  his  efforts? 

10.  Explain  why  home  missions  have  a  deep  meaning. 


Reading  References. 
{!)  Clark:  Leavening  the  Nation.    (2)  Mo  wry:  Marcus  Whitman.    {3) 
Pilddefoot:  The  Minute  Man  on  the  Frontier.     {Jf)  Connor:  Black  Rock. 
(5)  Faris:  Winning  the  Oregon  Country. 


Lesson  42.    WILBERFORCE  AND  HUMANITARIAN  ENDEAVOR. 

Christianity  and  Social  Service. 

Soiirces.-T-Correspondence  and  life  of  Wilherforce;  his  diary;  writings  of  the 
Clapham  philanthropists;  Hansard's  Parliamentary  Reports. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  of  the  day.  Points  to  be  especially  noted  are:  (a)  the 
humanitarian  period;  {h)  the  Clapham  philanthropists;  (c)  the  championship  of 
Wilherforce;  (d)  factory  reform;  {e)  Charles  Kingsley. 

3.  For  special  discussion  consider  the  following  topics:  How  can  labor  con- 
ditions be  improved  in  a  modern  industrial  nation.? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  fully 
written  out.  ih)  Find  instances  in  the  New  Testament  where  Jesus  commends 
social  service,  (c)  Write  a  short  account  of  the  English  Parliament  and  some 
of  its  recent  legislation,     {d)  Write  a  brief  sketch  of  WiUiam  Wilberforce. 

Note  1.  The  Humanitarian  Spirit.  In  the  fifteenth  century  hu- 
manism preceded  the  German  Reformation.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  Methodist  Reformation  was  followed  by  humanitarianism. 
In  the  first  instance  human  life  became  an  interesting  subject  of  study; 
in  the  second  case  there  was  a  new  sense  of  human  worth.  This  new 
consciousness  appeared  in  various  ways — in  religion,  in  politics,  in 
social  and  industrial  relations.  Religious  teachers  perceived  a  wide- 
ness  in  God's  mercy  that  had  not  been  appreciated  before.  The  nar- 
row Calvinistic  idea  that  Christ  died  for  the  elect  only  gave  way  to 
the  Methodist  doctrine  of  divine  grace  free  to  all.  The  new  sect  of 
Universalists — founded  by  James  Relly  in  London  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  and  by  John  Murray  in  the  United  States 
about   1790 — even  maintained  the  doctrine  of    universal    salvation. 


228  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


The  Uiiiversalist  denomination  has  never  grown  to  large  proportions, 
but  its  distinctive  principle  was  a  symptom  of  a  new  sense  of  human 
worth  and  has  been  dynamic  in  modern  thinking.  In  politics  the 
rights  of  every  individual  were  championed  by  revolutionists  in  America 
and  France  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  The  spirit  of  social  sym- 
pathy showed  itself  in  a  variety  of  ways  in  the  same  period.  It  stimu- 
lated the  missionary  conviction  in  the  churches ;  it  expressed  itself  with 
the  aid  of  printer's  ink;  it  produced  numerous  social  reform  enterprises. 

Note  2.  The  Social  Expansion  of  Christianity.  This  awakening  of 
human  sympathy  marks  the  period  as  one  in  which  there  took  place  a 
social  expansion  of  Christianity.  The  emphasis  on  personal  religion 
had  been  strong  since  the  Reformation,  but  during  the  nineteenth 
century  the  trend  has  been  towards  an  emphasis  on  the  social  duty  of 
the  individual  Christian  and  of  the  church.  It  came  to  be  seen  that, 
while  social  endeavor  is  dependent  on  the.  spiritual  stimulus,  individual 
Christianity  is  of  little  worth  unless  it  stimulates  to  humanitarian  en- 
deavor. Methodism  had  caught  this  truth  in  a  measure,  but  the  best 
representatives  of  tliis  idea  were  the  Evangelicals  who  formed  a  group 
in  the  Anglican  church,  strongly  influenced  by  Methodist  principles, 
but  remaining  in  the  Episcopal  fold.  One  group  of  these  Evangelicals 
in  particular  reveals  the  strength  of  the  new  religious  and  humanitarian 
spirit.  This  was  a  group  of  eminent  men  and  women  centering  about 
the  London  suburb  of  Clapham,  and  sometimes  known  as  the  "  Clap- 
ham  sect."  Most  of  them  lived  there,  as  Emerson  and  several  of  his 
literary  contemporaries  formed  a  coterie  in  the  village  of  Concord, 
Massachusetts,  not  many  years  later.  They  wrote  on  philanthropy. 
They  practised  it — one  of  them  gave  away  not  less  than  ten  thousand 
dollars  a  year.  Another  of  the  company,  William  Wilberforce,  became 
their  spokesman  in  Parliament.  As  a  group  they  had  an  influence  for 
social  reform  that  was  unequalled  in  that  day,  and  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  they  were  church  people. 

Note  3.  A  Catalogue  of  Public  Evils.  There  was  great  need  of 
social  reform  in  England.  Thousands  of  people  were  desperately 
poor.  They  were  not  thrifty  and  fell  into  debt.  Debtors  were  thrown 
into  prison  when  they  could  not  pay.  At  one  time  not  far  from  the 
year  1800  there  were  ten  thousand  such  debtors  in  jail  and  twice  as 
many  trying  to  escape  imprisonment.  Once  in  prison  it  was  impos- 
sible for  them  to  satisfy  their  creditors,  and  their  condition  was  pitiable. 
Penalties  were  severe,  and  prison  conditions  were  intolerable.  Morals 
in  England  needed  improvement  in  spite  of  Methodist  reforms.  Drunk- 
enness and  gambling  were  still  common.     Slavery  and  the  slave  trade 


Fortytwo  WUberfoTce  and  Humanitarian  Endeavor  229 

were  intrenched  in  the  business  system  of  the  empire.  The  condition 
of  many  workers  in  Enghsh  industry  was  Kttle  better  than  that  of  the 
West  Indian  slaves.  Women  and  children  toiled  long  hours  in  the 
factories  amid  most  unhealthful  surroundings;  underground  in  some  of 
the  mines  they  were  treated  like  animals.  Even  in  charitable  institu- 
tions there  was  cruelty  and  neglect,  and  the  schools  needed  to  be 
reformed.  Some  of  the  religious  bodies  were  oppressed  by  the  state, 
and  needed  relief.  Only  a  few  of  the  English  people  had  the  right 
to  vote,  and  parliamentary  reform  was  one  of  the  most  needed  im- 
provements. The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  betterment  were  mountain 
high,  but  the  reformers  attacked  them  with  courage  and  determination. 

Note  4.  Wilberforce,  the  Champion  of  the  Slave.  There  are  three 
great  enterprises  that  must  find  a  place  in  the  story  of  humanitarian 
effort  in  England  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  attempt  of  Wilberforce  to  destroy  the  traffic  in 
human  slaves  under  the  British  flag. 

Wilberforce  was  a  Yorkshireman  of  good  family,  and  he  enjoyed  the 
privileges  of  a  university  education.  He  was  not  strong  physically, 
but  he  had  mental  endowments  that  gave  him  power  with  men,  espe- 
cially tlirough  his  eloquence.  He  became  influenced  by  the  evangelical 
type  of  religion  tln-ough  a  friend,  and  he  gained  political  opportunity 
through  William  Pitt,  the  famous  young  statesman  of  the  last  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  his  religious  interest  that  prompted 
him  to  become  the  champion  of  the  slave,  and  it  was  ability  in  parlia- 
mentary speech  that  made  him  effective.  His  health  did  not  always 
permit  him  to  be  active,  but  when  he  was  able  he  was  always  foremost 
in  keeping  social  questions  to  the  front,  and  for  many  years  he  was 
an  ideal  representative  of  the  people  in  the  national  legislature  of 
England. 

Slavery  is  almost  as  old  as  the  race  itself,  but  its  forms  have  been 
worse  in  some  periods  than  in  others.  In  Europe  slavery  gave  way  to 
serfdom  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  in  th^most  progres- 
sive countries  slaves  became  freemen.  But  a  new  and  very  profitable 
industry  had  been  opened  up  in  supplying  African  negroes  for  slaves 
on  American  plantations  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  Englishmen 
had  been  engaged  in  tliis  trade  from  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
English  planters  in  the  West  Indies  depended  on  the  supply  of  negroes 
to  give  them  a  profitable  interest  on  their  investments.  For  many 
years  they  had  no  fear  of  being  disturbed.  But  it  had  become  known 
that  great  cruelty  was  practised  in  obtaining  the  negroes  in  Africa,  and 
the  horrors  of  the  slave  ships  that  were  overcrowded  with  their  human 


230  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


cargo  became  notorious.  The  awakened  English  conscience  became 
sensitive.  The  Quakers  opposed  the  traffic.  Thomas  Clarkson,  a 
young  Enghshman,  was  a  pioneer  in  his  anti-slavery  zeal,  and  he 
interested  Wilberforce;  Wilberforce  introduced  the  subject  into  parlia- 
mentary debate.  At  first  he  was  treated  with  ridicule  and  contempt, 
and  he  made  little  progress,  but  he  persisted.  Then  in  alarm  the 
powerful  planters  and  traders  bestirred  themselves  to  protect  their 
vested  interests.  By  slow  steps  "Wilberforce  and  his  friends  gained 
ground.  This  intrepid  parliamentarian  with  the  vision  of  freedom  in 
his  heart  would  not  be  put  down.  Again  and  again  he  returned  to  the 
charge  after  every  defeat.  After  a  time  Wilberforce  was  able  to  secure 
restrictions  upon  the  traffic,  and  at  last  after  twenty  years  of  struggle 
the  Christian  spirit  of  England  was  strong  enough  to  bring  the  slave 
trade  to  an  end  in  1807.  When  this  beginning  had  been  made,  it  was 
only  a  question  of  time  when  slavery  itself  must  go,  and  this  was 
decreed  in  1833.  By  the  law  of  that  year  all  slaves  in  the  British 
colonies  were  freed,  and  twenty  thousand  pounds  were  paid  to  their 
owners  in  compensation. 

Note  5.  Lord  Shaftesbury  and  Factory  Reform.  Wilberforce  had 
been  interested  in  all  good  causes,  though  his  special  effort  was  made 
in  behalf  of  negro  slaves.  He  did  not  live  to  assume  the  championship 
of  the  second  great  enterprise,  the  emancipation  of  the  white  people  of 
England  who  in  mines  and  factories  were  enduring  a  slavery  almost  as 
revolting  as  that  of  the  "  middle  passage."  The  leadership  in  factory 
reform  passed  to  Lord  Shaftesbury,  an  English  nobleman,  as  truly 
Christian  as  Wilberforce,  and  of  sufficient  power  in  purse  and  politics 
to  make  liim  effective  in  carrying  a  reform  through  Parliament. 

The  English  factory  system  had  grown  up  out  of  changing  industrial 
conditions.  The  invention  of  machinery  destroyed  the  old  hand  labor, 
and  because  the  machinery  was  heavy  and  expensive,  capitahsts  who 
could  afford  it  built  large  factories  and  equipped  them  with  machinery. 
Then  they  looked  about  for  laborers.  From  poorhouses,  orphanages, 
and  poor  families,  they  gathered  women  and  children  to  work  with  the 
men;  they  paid  them  low  wages,  and  kept  them  at  work  twelve  hours 
and  more;  and  England,  devoted  to  the  economic  gospel  of  freedom 
of  trade  and  manufacturing  from  governmental  interference,  permitted 
such  abuses.  But  there  came  a  time  when  the  Christian  conscience 
called  a  halt.  By  a  succession  of  laws,  culminating  in  Shaftesbury's 
Factory  Acts  of  1844  and  1847,  the  workers  were  freed  from  the  severest 
oppression. 


Forty-two  WUberforce  and  Humanitarian  Endeavor  231 

Note  6.  Kingsley  and  the  Christian  Socialists.  The  tliird  great 
enterprise  was  the  upHft  of  social  hfe  in  country  and  town.  The  leaders 
were  a  group  of  Christian  Sociahsts,  who  would  now  be  called  only 
socialized  Christians,  behevers  in  the  social  mission  of  Christianity  to 
redeem  the  whole  man.  The  most  prominent  leader  was  Charles 
Kingsley,  a  learned  scholar,  but  only  a  country  clergyman  when  he 
assumed  the  championsliip  of  the  masses  in  1848.  He  wrote  pam- 
phlets and  articles  for  the  papers,  and  he  pubUshed  books  showing 
social  conditions  in  the  manufacturing  towns  and  in  the  rural  districts. 
The  working  people  of  his  day  had  little  use  for  the  church,  but  Kings- 
ley  gloried  in  his  churchmanship  and  in  the  gospel  that  he  preached. 
Far  from  being  a  modern  socialist  he  declared  that  what  the  world 
needed  was  not  more  of  any  system  good  or  bad,  but  more  of  the  spirit 
of  God.  He  accomplished  no  great  reform,  but  he  did  that  which  was 
more  important,  he  revealed  the  spirit  of  a  true  Clu^istian  man  and 
preacher. 

Note  7.  Christian  Social  Service.  The  social  mission  of  Chris- 
tianity was  only  beginning  to  be  apparent  in  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  it  had  gone  so  far  that  it  could  produce  men  Hke 
these.  Nothing  reveals  more  clearly  the  growth  of  the  Christian  spirit 
than  the  contrast  between  such  a  selfish  statesman  as  Lord  Somerset, 
railroading  a  nominal  Protestantism  through  the  English  Parliament 
to  suit  his  own  ends,  and  a  man  like  Wilberforce,  standing  in  feebleness 
of  body  but  with  splendid  courage  in  that  same  Parliament,  and  fighting 
year  after  year  the  battles  of  those  who  could  not  speak  for  themselves. 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Wlien  did  home  missions  begin  in  America? 

2.  What  methods  were  used? 

3.  What  have  been  the  results? 


Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  are  the  indications  of  a  hew  humanitarian  spirit  in  England? 


2.  Who  were  the  Universalists: 


Lesson 


232  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 

3.  Who  were  the  EvangeHcals? 

4.  Explain  the  need  of  social  reform  in  England. 

5.  Describe  the  career  of  Wilberforce. 

6.  What  were  the  evils  of  negro  slavery? 

7.  How  was  it  abolished  in  the  British  empire? 

8.  Describe  the  industrial  conditions  that  led  to  factory  reform. 

9.  Why  does  Kingsley  belong  in  this  story? 

10.  Contrast  Somerset  and  Wilberforce. 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Cheyney:  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  ch.  9.  (2) 
Hall:  The  Social  Meaning  of  Modern  Religious  Movements  in  England, 
lecture  4.  (S)  Gibbins:  English  Social  Reformers,  pp.  94-107.  (4)  E.  B. 
Browning:  The  Cry  of  the  Children. 


Forty-three  Lincoln,  the  Slave  Emancipator  233 

Lesson  43.    LINCOLN,  THE  SLAVE  EMANCIPATOR.    The  End 

of  Slavery  in  the  United  States. 

Sources. — Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presidents;  debates  and  speeches  in 
Congress  and  elsewhere;  the  Emancipation  Proclamation;  Lincoln's  Works; 
biographies  and  reminiscences  of  liincoln  and  the  war;  files  of  secular  and 
reUgious  newspapers. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  life  of  the 
negro;  (6)  the  growth  of  abolition  sentiment;  (c)  the  task  of  Lincoln;  (d)  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation;  (e)  the  greatness  of  Lincoln. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  special  topic  for  class  disscussion:  What  is  the 
duty  of  the  church  with  regard  to  the  problem  of  human  labor.^ 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  the 
usual  summary  is  in  proper  form.  (6)  Write  an  imaginary  description  of  slave 
life  on  a  Southern  plantation,  (c)  Outline  the  arguments  for  and  against 
slavery,  (d)  Make  a  list  of  the  states  that  seceded  from  the  Union,  and 
another  list  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  war.  (e)  Draw  a  map  to  show  the 
states  and  the  battlefields. 

Note  1.  Negro  Slavery  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  curious  coinci- 
dence that  the  year  1807  which  saw  the  end  of  the  British  slave  trade 
witnessed  also  the  prohibition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  United  States. 
From  the  time  when  the  Dutch  landed  the  first  cargo  of  negroes  in 
Virginia  in  1619,  slavery  had  existed  in  America.  Gradually  it  became 
unprofitable  and  ceased  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  but  in  the 
South  it  seemed  to  the  planters  an  economic  necessity.  Negro  labor 
was  depended  on  for  the  cultivation  and  harvesting  of  the  plantation 
crops.  It  was  purely  an  economic  consideration.  Except  for  one  or 
two  sects  like  the  Quakers,  the  religious  denominations  were  not  hostile 
to  it.  The  social  conscience  of  America  had  not  been  aroused  by  a 
Wilberforce.  In  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  seemed  as  if 
slavery  might  die  out  in  the  South,  but  in  1793  Eli  Whitney  invented 
a  cotton  gin  that  greatly  increased  the  value  of  a  cotton  crop.  Cotton 
speedily  became  the  great  staple  of  the  South,  and  the  demand  for  slaves 
increased. 

In  many  parts  of  the  South  the  slave  system  was  a  paternal  sort  of 
arrangement.  The  master  cared  for  his  slaves  as  dependents  on  the 
estate,  housing,  clotliing,  and  feeding  them,  and  exacting  from  them 
little  severe  labor  in  return.  The  negroes  often  preferred  such  a  life 
to  the  responsibilities  of  freedom.  But  on  the  large  plantations,  espe- 
cially in  the  far  South,  where  hundreds  of  the  slaves  worked  in  the 
fields  under  a  paid  overseer,  the  system  worked  badly.  The  methods 
employed  to  force  their  labor  and  to  speed  them  up  were  harsh.  Worst 
of  all  much  immorality  attended  the  system  of  slavery.  The  blacks  were 
ignorant,  superstitious,  and  lazy.     They  were  never  taught  self-control. 


234  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^'"*" 

and  gave  way  freely  to  animal  passion.  Bought  and  sold  as  chattels, 
they  did  not  know  the  sanctity  of  the  home.  They  revelled  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  religions  dissipation,  but  religion  was  of  the  emotions  rather 
than  of  the  will.  At  best  the  slave  system  was  an  antiquated  social 
order  not  fitted  to  the  nineteenth  century,  and  could  not  remain  after 
the  Christian  conscience  of  the  nation  became  more  powerful  than 
economic  convenience. 

Note  2.  Anti-Slavery  Sentiment  Grows.  As  early  as  1790  petitions 
opposing  slavery  went  to  Congress  from  the  Quakers  and  from  a  Penn- 
sylvania Society  for  Promoting  the  abolition  of  Slavery.  With  the 
growth  of  western  settlement  and  the  admission  of  new  states  to  the 
Union,  Congress  tried  to  maintain  a  balance  between  states  that  per- 
mitted slavery  and  those  that  prohibited  it.  After  1830  individual  agita- 
tors appeared,  like  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  and  in  the  year  that  the 
British  Parliament  abolished  slavery  in  the  empire  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  was  organized.  A  few  years  later  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 
wrote  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  a  dark  picture  of  Southern  life  that  converted 
thousands  in  the  North  to  a  profound  hatred  of  a  system  that  made 
such  evils  possible.  These  agitators  made  slavery  a  moral  issue  and 
disregarded  economic  conditions.  As  Socialists  today  demand  a  radical 
revolution  in  the  industrial  order  because  there  is  oppression  of  the 
laborer,  so  abolitionists  then  demanded  immediate  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  regardless  of  the  ruin  that  would  impend  over  the  industry  of 
the  South,  and  regardless  of  the  fact  that  the  negroes  would  not  know 
how  to  use  their  freedom.  Naturally  Southerners  became  very  sensi- 
tive to  the  charges  of  cruelty  and  immorality  that  were  hurled  against 
them,  and  many  who  were  not  guilty  of  abuses  suffered  for  the  guilt 
of  those  who  practised  them.  Slavery  was  a  system  that  bound  the 
whole  South  together  in  a  common  fault  and  a  common  fate. 

Note  3.  Approaching  Civil  War.  After  1850  slavery  became  the 
dominant  political  issue  of  the  nation.  The  growth  of  anti-slavery 
sentiment  was  making  the  North  determined  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
slavery  in  the  new  territory.  The  pride  of  the  South  was  aroused  to 
defend  its  honor  and  to  maintain  the  equality  of  its  own  section  of  the 
country  with  the  more  rapidly  growing  North.  The  spirit  of  division 
had  already  entered  the  councils  of  several  of  the  great  religious  denom- 
inations, and  disrupted  them  Next  it  entered  the  ranks  of  the  two 
great  political  parties,  destroyed  one,  and  divided  the  other.  .  Anti- 
slavery  sentiment  crystallized  in  the  organization  of  a  Republican 
party  which  grew  so  rapidly  that  it  was  victorious  in  the  national  elec- 
tion of  1860.     With  an  insane  fear  that  this  meant  the  destruction  of 


Forty-three  Lincolu,  the  Slave  Emancipator  235 

the  South  in  the  fall  of  its  peculiar  industrial  system,  the  South  repudi- 
ated the  Union  which  had  been  formed  with  the  states  of  the  North 
after  the  Revolution,  and  prepared  to  defend  by  force  its  hberty  of 
action. 

Note  4.  Abraham  Lincoln.  On  the  twelfth  of  February,  1809, 
there  was  born  in  a  miserable  Kentucky  shack  a  boy  who  was  to  meet 
the  emergency  of  '61.  This  was  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  spent  his 
boyhood  in  southern  Indiana  on  the  border  between  North  and  South, 
and  grew  to  manhood  without  any  of  the  advantages  that  were  needed 
for  future  success.  But  he  became  a  self-reliant  son  of  the  prairie,  and 
when  he  was  his  own  master  he  studied  the  profession  of  the  law  in 
IlHnois,  which  led  him  later  into  politics.  When  slavery  became  a 
political  issue,  he  took  his  stand  on  the  side  that  he  believed  to  be 
morally  right.  Two  years  before  the  fateful  campaign  of  1860  he 
stumped  the  state  of  Illinois  for  the  governorship  against  the  most 
redoubtable  champion  of  the  slave  system  in  the  North.  That 
courageous  but  unsuccessful  campaign  made  him  the  Republican 
nominee  for  the  presidency  in  1860,  and  it  was  against  him  and  his 
party  that  the  South  raised  the  standard  of  secession  in  the  weeks  that 
followed  his  election. 

Note  5.  Lincoln's  Task.  Few  men  in  history  have  faced  such  a 
difficult  problem  as  met  Lincoln  when  he  was  inaugurated  president 
in  the  spring  of  1861.  He  had  foreseen  the  catastrophe  when  he 
declared  his  conviction  that  the  nation  could  not  continue  to  exist 
half  slave  and  half  free,  but  neither  he  nor  the  Republican  party  had 
intended  to  force  abolition  on  the  South.  Now  the  Union  wliich  seemed 
essential  to  American  prosperity  was  broken,  and  all  hope  of  the  peace- 
ful emancipation  of  forced  labor  in  the  South  seemed  at  an  end.  As 
Jesus  wept  over  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  wliich  he  foresaw,  so  Lincoln 
might  well  weep  over  the  impending  conflict  between  brothers,  descend- 
ants of  sires  who  had  dedicated  the  nation  to  human  freedom.  But 
he  had  taken  oath  to  preserve  the  Union,  and  it  was  his  task  to  use  all 
the  force  that  the  nation  possessed  to  prevent  division.  The  years 
that  had  confirmed  the  South  in  its  rights  as  independent  slave-holding 
states  had  knit  together  the  northern  states  into  a  unified  nation,  and 
when  Lincoln  called  for  troops  the  loyal  sentiment  of  the  North  re- 
sponded, and  the  war  began. 

Note  6.  The  Need  of  a  Socialized  Religion.  It  has  always  been 
difficult  for  a  Northern  churchman  to  understand  how  the  Christian 
people  of  the  South  could  justify  their  defense  of  slavery.     It  will  be 


236  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^*'"'" 

just  as  difficult  for  the  Christian  of  the  future  to  understand  ho\v  present 
daj  followers  of  Jesus  Christ  can  permit  the  social  evils  of  modern 
industrial  and  city  life.  The  difficulty  has  been  and  continues  to  be 
that  religion  too  often  remains  a  thing  apart,  a  concern  of  the  soul  in 
its  relations  to  its  Maker,  but  not  a  thing  which  is  intimately  related 
to  the  business  of  every  day  life.  The  South  justified  its  economic 
system  on  tlie  ground  of  necessity,  and  supported  it  by  the  example  of 
the  worthies  of  the  Old  Testament.  There  has  never  been  a  section 
of  the  country  more  deeply  religious  than  the  South.  The  industrial 
North  excuses  its  evils  on  the  same  ground  of  necessity,  and  maintains 
its  religious  complacency  as  long  as  the  routine  functions  of  religion 
are  performed.  The  Civil  War  has  taught  more  than  one  lesson  to 
America,  but  Christian  people  of  the  present  day  very  much  need  to 
learn  the  lesson  that  their  religion  is  not  complete,  and  the  peace  and 
prosperity  of  the  country  are  not  secure,  until  social  justice  and  oppor- 
tunity are  made  possible  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  United 
States. 

Note  7.  A  Double  Tragedy.  For  four  weary  years  the  great 
tragedy  of  the  Civil  War  was  staged  on  the  fair  South  country.  Many 
times  has  the  picture  been  drawn  of  fields  destroyed  and  homes  deso- 
lated, of  cities  in  ruin  and  lives  sacrificed.  It  was  an  awful  fate  for 
the  people  who  had  clung  to  the  survivals  of  an  age  outworn.  But 
in  the  White  House  at  Wasliington  there  was  being  enacted  another 
tragedy  that  had  its  setting  in  the  soul  of  the  President.  No  one  who 
understands  the  tender  sympathy  and  merciful  spirit  of  Lincoln  can 
doubt  that  there  beat  upon  him  as  fierce  a  storm  as  swept  over  his 
country.  The  extent  of  his  suffering  no  one  can  know.  He  was  sus- 
tained by  his  native  optimism  and  by  his  trust  in  Divine  Providence, 
and  the  end  of  the  war  brought  no  greater  measure  of  peace  to  the  whole 
country  than  it  brought  to  the  heart  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  His  swift 
death  wliich  followed  was  a  sad  aftermath  of  the  long  tragedy,  but  it 
enslirined  him  in  the  heart  of  the  nation  for  all  time. 

Note  8.  The  Emancipation  Proclamation.  In  the  darkest  hour  of 
the  war  Lincoln  did  not  forget  that  the  freedom  of  the  slave  as  well 
as  the  preservation  of  the  Union  was  at  stake.  Then  he  performed  an 
act  as  a  war  measure  that  he  would  not  have  done  in  time  of  peace. 
By  its  revolt  against  the  national  government  the  South  had  forfeited 
the  right  to  its  slave  property  if  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Union 
armies  deemed  it  necessary  to  confiscate  it.  On  this  principle  and  on 
the  higher  moral  principle  that  slavery  was  wrong,  Abraham  Lincoln 
wrote  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  of  the  colored  race  in  the  South. 


orty-t  ree  Liucoln,  the  Sluve  Emancipator  237 

It  was  written  when  the  war  had  continued  for  a  Httle  more  than  a  year, 
and  it  went  into  effect  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1863.  It  had  to  be 
enforced  by  the  armies  of  the  North,  and  its  fate  was  not  determined 
for  more  than  two  years  of  bitter  war,  but  time  vindicated  the  bold  act 
of  Lincoln  in  striking  from  millions  of  the  human  race  the  shackles 
that  kept  them  from  their  rightful  heritage  of  manhood  and  from  the 
American  birthright  of  opportunity. 

Note  9.  The  Greatness  of  Lincoln.  Kings  have  claimed  to  rule 
by  divine  right;  presidents  have  won  office  by  unholy  methods;  vic- 
torious generals  have  made  their  way  to  high  position  over  fields  of 
blood.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  one  of  the  few  men  of  whom  it  might 
truly  be  said  that  he  ruled  by  the  grace  of  God.  He  took  office  that 
he  might  serve  his  country;  he  held  firmly  to  the  cause  of  right  though 
the  sons  of  the  North  bled,  and  the  men  of  the  South  called  him  tyrant. 
He  died  a  martyr  to  the  principles  for  which  he  had  given  already  the 
best  years  of  his  life.  In  days  to  come,  when  animosities  are  forgotten 
and  character  shines  in  clear  light,  Abraham  Lincoln  will  appear  in  the 
history  of  liis  age  a  man  called  of  God  to  right  a  social  wrong  that 
might  not  longer  endure. 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  marked  Christian  expansion  in  England.'^ 

2.  What  social  reforms  occurred.^ 

3.  Who  were  the  leaders.^ 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  slavery  become  fastened  on  the  South? 


2.  What  were  some  of  its  evils? 

3.  Compare  the  abolitionist  agitation  with  that  of  socialism. 

4.  Trace  the  growth  of  abolition  sentiment  up  to  the  war. 


238  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"""^ 

5.  State  the  facts  about  Lincoln's  early  life. 

6.  How  did  he  come  to  be  the  champion  of  freedom  and  union? 

7.  How  explain  the  South's  justification  of  slavery? 

8.  What  was  the  double  tragedy? 

9.  Explain  the  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

10.  Describe  the  greatness  of  Lincoln. 


Reading  References.    . 

{!)  Tarbell:  Life  of  Lincoln.  {2)  Ropes:  Story  of  the  Civil  War. 
{3)  Hart:  Source  Book  of  American  History.  (Jf)  Stowe:  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin. 


Lesson  44.    THE  GOSPEL  OF  SELF-CONTROL.    The  Crusade 
for  Temperance  and  Purity. 

Sources. — Addresses  and  papers  of  temperance  advocates;  legislative  acts  in 
various  countries;  tracts  and  reports  of  such  societies  as  the  Anti-Saloon  League 
and  the  American  Purity  Alliance;  national  and  international  statistics. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Review  the  summaries  from  the  beginning  of 
the  quarter. 

2.  Read  the  present  lesson  story,  giving  special  attention  to:  (a)  the  need  of 
temperance  reform;  (6)  the  three  methods  that  have  been  tried;  (c)  the  work 
of  Father  Mathew;  id)  the  present  organized  agencies;  {e)  the  purposes  and 
results  of  the  purity  campaign. 

3,  Give  special  thought  to  the  following  topic  for  class  discussion:  What 
are  the  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  restricting  freedom  by  a  prohibitory  law? 


FoHv-four  rpj^^  Q^g^^i  ^j  Self-Control  239 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  all 
summaries  up  to  date  are  complete.  (6)  Make  a  list  of  ways  by  which  it  is 
possible  for  the  church  to  help  the  cause  of  temperance  and  purity;  make  a 
second  Ust  by  which  the  school  may  do  the  same;  and  a  third  list  on  state 
action,  (c)  Write  an  article  suitable  for  newspaper  publication  on  Substitutes 
for  the  Saloon,     (d)  Write  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Frances  Willard. 

Note  1.  The  Pull  of  Animal  Desires.  It  was  a  remarkable  achieve- 
ment for  men  like  Lincoln  and  Wilberforce  to  free  millions  of  slaves 
from  bondage  to  other  men.  As  great  an  honor  may  yet  belong  to 
him  who  can  free  the  men  who  are  slaves  to  their  own  primitive  pas- 
sions. Intemperance  and  impurity  are  as  great  a  curse  to  the  human 
race  as  slavery.  It  is  well  known  that  the  earliest  human  desires  are 
to  eat  and  to  mate.  Such  desires  are  proper  as  long  as  they  are  kept 
under  control.  Unfortunately  the  shores  of  the  centuries  are  strewn 
with  human  wrecks  because  of  the  perversion  of  those  desires.  To 
keep  temperate  and  to  keep  pure  have  been  harder  tasks  for  many 
than  to  play  the  man  on  the  field  of  battle.  But  self-control  is  one  of 
the  principles  of  Christianity.  Paul  had  much  to  say  about  that  kind 
of  gospel  in  his  letters  to  the  Corinthians  and  Romans.  Medieval 
monks  made  asceticism  and  cehbacy  fundamental  principles  of  their 
order.  The  progressive  Christians  of  the  nineteenth  century  could  do 
no  less  than  to  stand  for  the  gospel  of  self-control,  and  so  it  came 
about  that  a  crusade  was  on  in  England  and  America  for  temperance 
before  the  victory  against  slavery  was  fully  won. 

Note  2.  The  Need  of  Temperance  Reform  a  Century  Ago.  Two 
circumstances  made  temperance  reform  necessary.  One  was  that 
immoderate  drinking  was  far  more  general  than  now,  and  the  other 
was  that  distilled  spirits  had  displaced  largely  the  milder  fermented 
liquors  in  England  and  America.  Even  the  clergy  were  sometimes 
addicted  to  strong  drinks,  setting  a  bad  example  to  their  parishioners 
and  disgracing  the  cloth.  It  was  impossible  to  have  a  house-raising, 
a  husking  bee,  or  even  a  funeral  without  the  consumption  of  quantities 
of  liquors.  It  became  apparent  to  certain  physicians  in  England  and 
America  that  bodily  health  was  suffering  from  frequent  intoxication, 
and  legislators  in  Parliament  recognized  the  fact  that  the  race  was 
suffering  physical  degeneration.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century 
several  of  the  clergy  awoke  to  the  evil  of  intemperance  and  spoke 
against  it.  Perhaps  the  most  important  temperance  writings  of  the 
period  were  six  sermons  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher  of  Litchfield,  Con- 
necticut, which  were  published,  and  had  far  more  than  a  local  influence. 

Note  3.  Organizing  for  Reform.  There  were  two  good  reasons  for 
organization.     In  the  first  place  it  gave  strength  to  the  reformers  to 


240  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


plan  together  and  unite  for  action;  in  the  second  place  membership  in 
a  society  gave  strength  to  the  weak  wills  of  those  who  were  tempted 
to  immoderate  indulgence.  There  have  been  several  stages  in  the 
history  of  organization,  as  there  have  been  stages  in  the  anti-drink 
campaign  generally.  In  the  first  years  it  was  a  crusade  for  temperance, 
not  for  total  abstinence  or  prohibition.  The  use  of  cider,  wine,  and 
beer  was  not  frowned  upon  like  the  consumption  of  whiskey,  brandy, 
and  rum.  Local  and  state  societies  in  New  York  and  New  England 
were  followed  by  agitation  in  Ireland  and  in  1831  the  British  and  For- 
eign Temperance  Society  was  organized  in  London  under  the  patronage 
of  the  highest  officials  of  the  Anglican  church,  and  later  of  Queen 
Victoria.  But  as  temperance  enthusiasm  increased,  the  movement  for 
self-denial  was  extended  to  a  pledge  of  total  abstinence  from  intoxi- 
cants of  every  kind.  The  American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Temperance  was  founded  on  that  principle  in  1826,  and  within  three 
years  there  were  affiliated  with  it  eleven  state  and  local  societies. 

Note  4.  Father  Mathew's  Crasade.  The  most  effective  work  in 
this  period  of  emphasis  on  total  abstinence  was  performed  by  an  Irish 
Catholic  priest  of  Cork,  Father  Theobald  Mathew.  He  was  passing 
through  the  workhouse  one  day  in  the  year  1838  with  a  Quaker  friend 
who  was  known  as  an  ardent  temperance  advocate.  They  passed  by 
certain  debauched  inmates,  when  the  Quaker  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  Theo- 
bald Mathew,  if  thou  would  but  take  the  cause  in  hand!"  The  priest 
after  some  reflection  accepted  the  challenge,  and  organized  the  Cork 
Total  Abstinence  Society  with  sixty  members.  Addressing  them  at 
the  first  meeting,  he  expressed  liis  conviction  that  the  use  of  intoxicants 
was  an  unnecessary  and  harmful  practice,  and  declared:  "I  will  be 
the  first  to  sign  my  name  in  the  book  which  is  on  the  table,  and  I  hope 
we  shall  soon  have  it  full."  Each  man  then  took  this  pledge:  "  I 
promise  to  abstain  from  all  intoxicating  drinks,  etc.,  except  used  medici- 
nally and  by  order  of  a  medical  man,  and  to  discountenance  the  cause 
and  practice  of  intemperance." 

From  this  local  beginning  the  temperance  enthusiasm  spread  from 
county  to  county  of  Ireland.  As  Father  Mathew  went  from  place  to 
place,  thousands  gathered  to  see  and  hear  him,  and  tens  of  thousands 
signed  the  pledge.  The  consumption  of  spirits  fell  off  decidedly,  and 
the  priest  of  Cork  dared  to  hope  that  Ireland  might  become  converted 
wholly  to  temperance.  When  he  thought  his  work  in  Ireland  done,  he 
went  to  Scotland  and  England,  where  a  quarter  of  a  million  people 
declared  themselves  for  total  abstinence.  He  even  visited  the  United 
States,  where  he  was  received  with  ^very  mark  of  honor.     But  when 


PoTty.fouT  rjri^^  Gospel  of  Self-CoTitrol  241 

Father  Mathew  returned  to  Ireland  in  1851,  he  found  that  the  people 
were  falling  back  into  their  old  habits,  and  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  only  possible  way  of  obtaining  permanent  success  was  through 
legislative  prohibition. 

Note  5.  Prohibition  by  Law.  During  the  same  period  as  Father 
Mathew's  crusade  the  Washingtonian  movement  grew  and  declined  in 
the  United  States.  It  had  its  origin  in  the  sudden  reformation  of  six 
confirmed  drinkers  in  Baltimore.  They  organized  a  society,  and 
started  an  enthusiastic  movement  that  was  second  only  to  that  of 
Father  Mathew.  Yet  before  1850  it  went  the  way  of  other  temporary 
excitements. 

These  two  waves  of  popular  enthusiasm  made  it  plain  that  as  long 
as  the  law  permitted  the  sale  of  intoxicants,  self-control  must  wait  on 
governmental  control.  The  highest  type  of  social  control  is  self- 
control,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  will  come  when  the  human 
will  is  strong  enough  to  dispense  with  the  props  of  legal  restraint,  but 
until  that  time  comes  prohibitions  of  various  sorts  must  be  maintained. 
On  this  theory  the  temperance  workers  proceeded  after  years  of  unsuc- 
cessful experiment  with  voluntary  self-denial.  Turning  their  attention 
to  legislative  action,  they  secured  a  state  law  in  New  York  in  1845, 
prohibiting  the  public  sale  of  liquor,  but  this  was  repealed  after  an 
experiment  of  two  years.  In  Maine,  through  the  efforts  of  Neal  Dow, 
there  was  enacted  a  law  that  has  remained  permanently  on  the  statute 
books.  Other  states  have  followed  this  example  in  the  half  century 
that  has  passed.  Some  laws  have  been  successful  in  checking  intem- 
perance, others  have  been  repealed  after  a  time.  During  the  last 
thirty  years  a  national  Prohibition  party  has  been  agitating  for  national 
prohibition. 

Note  6.  Frances  Willard  and  her  Times.  In  the  last  fifty  years 
three  notable  organizations  have  furthered  temperance  interests.  The 
oldest  of  these  came  into  existence  just  as  Father  Mathew  returned 
from  America  to  Ireland.  This  was  the  order  of  Good  Templars.  It 
was  the  first  organization  to  admit  women  on  equal  terms  with  men. 
It  stood  for  total  abstinence  for  the  individual  and  prohibition  for  the 
state.  It  has  proved  very  helpful  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  America. 
The  second  was  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  in  which 
the  women  of  the  world  have  enrolled  themselves  for  the  larger  influ- 
ence of  womankind,  and  for  the  education  of  children  in  the  schools 
and  churches  to  understand  the  evils  of  intemperance.  In  the  adminis- 
tration of  this  organization  no  person  has  been  so  prominent  as  Frances 
Willard.     She  dechned  an  important  educational  position  to  become 


242  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^"'^^ 

head  of  the  Chicago  branch  of  the  society,  and  through  her  great 
executive  abihty  she  rose  to  be  the  founder  and  first  president  of  the 
world  organization.  It  was  Miss  Willard's  spirit  of  consecration  to  duty 
that  first  made  her  career  possible.  It  was  the  character  of  the  woman 
more  than  her  oflSce  that  made  her  famous.  Like  her  there  have  been 
many  humble  members  of  Christian  churches  who  have  striven  through 
years  to  further  the  temperance  cause.  Temperance  has  been  the  one 
popular  social  reform  that  enlisted  the  support  of  the  churches  in  the 
period  before  social  service  became  prominent.  This  rehgious  con- 
nection of  the  temperance  movement  has  been  sustained  in  the  last 
twenty  years  by  the  Anti-Saloon  League,  which  is  the  third  great 
agency  to  be  included  in  this  list.  Originating  in  Ohio,  it  has  labored 
everywhere  to  bring  to  bear  upon  state  legislatures  the  pressure  of  the 
best  public  opinion,  and  it  has  been  remarkably  successful  in  effecting 
prohibitory  legislation,  especially  in  the  South. 

Note  7.  The  Purity  Campaign.  A  twin  evil  of  intemperance  has 
been  impurity.  Indeed,  it  is  seriously  questioned  if  the  victims  of  vice 
are  not  more  than  those  of  intemperance.  The  drink  habit  is  much 
less  destructive  of  the  home  than  the  social  evil.  Drunkenness  causes 
less  widespread  physical  ruin  than  venereal  disease.  The  two  flourish 
together,  and  both  are  peculiarly  destructive  among  the  most  civilized 
peoples. 

The  campaign  for  social  purity  is  of  more  recent  date  than  the  tem- 
perance crusade.  When  the  public  awoke  to  the  importance  of  con- 
certed action  against  vice,  they  began  to  organize.  The  principal  aims 
have  been  to  educate  public  opinion,  to  rescue  the  fallen,  and  to  develop 
constructive  methods  of  reform  through  legislation  and  otherwise  that 
would  prevent  a  continuance  of  the  evils  that  were  becoming  notorious. 
Definite  results  have  followed.  The  distribution  of  quantities  of  obscene 
literature  to  young  people  has  been  checked.  Printed  information  has 
been  distributed  on  topics  of  sex  hygiene,  and  sex  instruction  is  being 
introduced  into  schools.  Law  and  order  leagues  have  lessened  im- 
moral practices  in  many  cities.  Better  laws  for  the  regulation  of  pros- 
titution have  been  enacted  and  enforced.  A  large  number  of  indi- 
viduals have  been  rescued  from  an  irregular  manner  of  fife. 

Note  8.  The  Social  Gospel.  In  these  definite  ways  the  apostles  of 
the  gospel  of  self-control  have  been  carrying  on  their  crusade.  With 
the  prop  of  the  law  they  are  encouraging  the  weak-willed  to  stand  on 
their  own  feet.  The  church  is  enlarging  its  Christian  ministry  by 
urging  the  weak-kneed  to  seek  spiritual  strength,  and  at  the  same  time 
is  doing  its  part  in  removing  the  temptations  of  the  environment.     No 


Forly^Sour  ^  rp^^    Q^^^^l    ^J   Self-Coutrol  243 

great  social  reform  is  achieved  in  a  single  generation,  but  victory  is 
in  sight  when  the  expanding  thought  of  the  day  recognizes  both  the 
spiritual  and  the  social  ministry  of  the  Christian  religion. 


Questions  on  Recent  Lesson  Summaries. 

1.  Why  is  Carey's  name  important  in  Cliristian  history? 

2.  What  were  some  of  his  achievements? 

3.  What  was  the  work  of  the  Christian  scouts  of  America? 

4.  Name  some  of  the  earliest  social  reforms  of  the  nineteenth  century 
in  Great  Britain. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  leaders. 

6.  What  caused  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States? 

7.  Who  was  the  promoter  of  emancipation? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  are  the  principal  human  desires,  and  how  have  they  been 
abused? 


2.  How  has  Christianity  emphasized  self-control? 

3.  What  reasons  were  there  for  temperance  reform  a  century  agoi 


4.  What  two  kinds  of  temperance  reform  were  first  tried,  and  what 
were  the  reasons  for  each? 


5.  Tell  the  story  of  Father  Mathew's  crusade. 

6.  Why  did  it  seem  necessary  to  introduce  prohibition? 


7.  State  the  three  most  notable  organizations  of  recent  years,  and 
their  particular  characteristics. 


244  Landmarks  in  Christian  History    -  ^^'"°" 

8.  What  made  the  career  of  Frances  Willard  so  creditable? 

9.  What  have  been  the  purposes  of  the  purity  campaign? 

10.  What  definite  results  have  been  achieved? 

Reading  References. 

{!)  Article  on  Temperance  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  11th  edition. 
(2)  Peabody:  The  Liquor  Problem,  a  report  of  a  committee  of  fifty 
(Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  1905).  {3)  Gordon:  Life  of  Frances  E. 
Willard. 


Lesson  45,    THE   MINISTRY?    OF    HEALTH.    The   War  Against 

Diseases. 

Sources. — Reports  of  medical  societies  and  scientific  journals;  the  lives  of 
devoted  investigators,  physicians,  and  nurses;  newspaper  and  periodical  articles; 
Bucldey's  Faith-Healing,  Christian  Science,  and  Kindred  Phenomena. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson  for 
class  questioning. 

2.  Read  the  lesson  story,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  two  lines  of  health  pro- 
gress; (6)  medical  discoveries  in  the  nineteenth  century;  (c)  the  spirit  of  servdce 
among  physicians  and  nurses;  (d)  varieties  of  mind  cure. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion  in  class:  In  what 
respects  may  the  work  of  a  physician  or  a  nurse  be  called  Christian?  What 
is  there  of  good  in  Christian  Science? 

4.  Note-book  exercises:  (a)  Complete  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 
(b)  Write  an  account  of  the  Emmanuel  Movement,  (c)  Write  a  sketch  of 
Florence  Nightingale,  Clara  Barton,  or  Mary  Baker  Eddy,  (d)  Quote  five  of 
the  sayings  of  Jesus  with  reference  to  bodily  healing,  and  name  five  cures 
wrought  by  Him. 

Note  1.    Christianity  for  the  Body  as  well  as  the  Soul.    It  was  an 

ancient  theory  that  health  was  the  gift  of  the  gods;  the  modern  theory 
is  that  it  must  be  set  down  to  the  credit  of  the  right  kind  and  the  right 
number  of  bacteria.  In  olden  times  it  was  the  current  opinion  that 
the  soul  could  thrive  only  by  torturing  the  body,  or  at  least  denying 
it  proper  care.  The  fakirs  of  the  East  still  hold  to  that  opinion.  The 
modern  student  of  hygiene  hunts  in  a  Bible  concordance  for  the  maxim. 


^''^^'^''          '  The  Ministry  of  Health  245 

Cleanliness  is  next  to  Godliness,  so  sure  is  he  that  it  is  Christian  doc- 
trine. It  is  an  evidence  of  the  expanding  thought  about  Christianity 
that  so  much  emphasis  is  put  on  the  gospel  of  bodily  health.  It  is  also 
becoming  plain  that  health  of  mind  and  upHft  of  spirit  are  largely 
dependent  on  the  body.  It  was  the  Great  Physician  himself  who 
asked:  "  Which  is  easier  to  say,  '  Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee,'  or  to  say, 
*  Rise  up  and  walk  '?"  It  is  inconceivable  to  think  of  a  man  as  con- 
verted at  the  hands  of  Jesus  who  was  not  made  physically  as  well  as 
spiritually  whole.  It  is  the  awakening  consciousness  of  this  fact  that 
has  produced  more  than  one  cult  of  healing  that  claims  to  be  in  har- 
mony with  the  spirit  and  teaching  of  Christianity.  It  is  the  Christian 
spirit  of  service  that  leads  so  many  physicians  and  nurses  to  sacrifice 
comfort  and  even  life  in  a  ministry  of  health  and  a  warfare  against 
disease. 

Note  2.  Two  Health  Crusades.  Nineteenth  century  Christianity 
was  marked  by  a  series  of  crusades  against  social  ills.  The  missionary 
crusade  against  ignorance  and  superstition  in  the  East,  the  anti-slavery 
crusade  in  England  and  America,  and  the  temperance  crusade  have 
found  a  place  already  in  this  story.  The  campaign  for  better  health 
has  been  waged  along  two  lines — that  of  medical  and  sanitary  science, 
and  that  of  mental  and  Christian  science.  Each  has  been  slow  to 
recognize  anything  of  value  in  the  other,  but  they  are  beginning  to 
approach  each  other  in  recent  years.  Both  belong  among  the  land- 
marks of  Christian^^history,  because  they  are  marked  by  the  spirit  of 
devotion  to  the  good  of  humanity.  Their  differences  of  opinion  merely 
illustrate  the  difficulty  of  answering  the  question  of  Jesus  as  to  the 
comparative  ease  of  curing  the  whole  man  by  the  physical  or  by  the 
spiritual  process. 

Note  3.  The  Development  of  Medical  Science.  Every  one  knows 
of  the  barbaric  methods  used  by  the  medicine  man  among  peoples  of 
a  low  stage  of  culture.  Every  one  does  not  contrast  the  heroic  measures 
in  vogue  among  his  own  ancestors  with  the  improved  science  of  his  own 
day.  The  improvements  in  medical  science  have  come  by  means  of 
more  thorough  investigations  into  the  causes  of  disease,  and  have  been 
marked  by  better  methods  of  treatment  and  by  the  invention  of  greatly 
improved  instruments  in  surgery.  There  are  certain  names  that  must 
always  be  held  in  reverence  as  the  benefactors  of  mankind.  The  dis- 
coveries of  Pasteur  in  the  realm  of  bacteriology,  after  the  most  patient 
and  self-denying  researches,  made  possible  the  modern  germ  theory 
of  disease.  Koch  did  a  very  real  service  to  the  afflicted  when  he  made 
known  the  germ  of  the  dreadful  scourge  of  tuberculosis.     It  was  an 


246  Landmarks  in  Christian  History       ,  Lettm 

even  greater  boon  to  suffering  humanity  when  Morton  discovered  the 
use  of  anaesthetics,  and  Lister  succeeded  in  providing  antiseptic  treat- 
ment for  wounds.  The  presence  of  the  Christian  minister  has  been  a 
benediction  in  countless  sick-rooms,  but  as  far  as  bodily  relief  was 
concerned  his  power  was  limited  to  giving  spiritual  strength  to  bear 
the  pain.  It  has  been  given  to  the  modern  physician  to  soothe  the 
body  and  dull  the  ache,  and  coax  the  weary  spirit  back  to  its  tenement 
of  clay.  Perhaps  strangest  of  all  is  it  that  minister  and  physician,  as 
in  the  Emmanuel  Movement,  have  found  a  way  to  work  together  for 
the  cure  of  the  whole  nature. 

Note  4.  Hygiene.  Physicians  base  much  of  their  advice  on  the 
old  adage  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure.  It  is 
easier  to  keep  well  than  it  is  to  get  well.  Hygiene,  therefore,  belongs 
by  the  side  of  medicine  as  a  minister  to  health.  In  the  old  classical 
dictionaries  a  tiny  niche  was  reserved  for  the  goddess  Hygeia;  in  modern 
encyclopedias  hygiene  has  room  to  display  its  importance.  The  ancient 
Romans  appreciated  the  importance  of  pure  water,  and  built  great 
aqueducts  to  procure  it.  They  knew  the  value  of  cleanly  habits,  and 
maintained  large  public  baths.  In  Athens  the  famous  Themistocles 
was  at  one  time  sanitary  inspector  of  the  town  pump.  But  modern 
sanitation  and  hygiene  have  surpassed  the  ancients  in  their  thorough- 
going instruction  and  provision  for  all  classes  of  the  people.  Sanitary 
regulations  received  a  religious  sanction  among  the  Hebrews  by  their 
incorporation  into  the  Mosaic  law;  personal  cleanHness  and  social 
purity  are  coming  to  be  a  part  of  the  modern  creed  of  every  progressive 
race.  The  physician  preaches  the  doctrine  of  personal  hygiene  to 
each  of  his  patients.  The  social  reformer  insists  that  tuberculosis 
and  other  prevalent  diseases  so  common  among  the  poor  can  be  eradi- 
cated only  by  better  personal  habits  and  more  sanitary  housing  arrange- 
ments. The  war  against  disease  in  the  slums  is  forcing  the  destruction 
of  unhealthful  tenements.  The  new  campaign  for  rural  betterment 
includes  in  its  program  more  careful  attention  to  rural  hygiene.  The 
press  is  educating  the  people  everywhere  to  a  cleaner,  better  life. 

Note  5.  Ministers  of  Health.  Physicians  and  nurses  belong  in  a 
special  honor  list  among  the  servants  of  mankind.  In  the  past  the  sick 
had  to  depend  on  the  ministrations  of  a  kindly  neighbor.  Now  a  new 
order  of  sisters  of  charity  has  sprung  into  existence.  Young  women 
give  their  lives  to  trained  nursing  and  do  not  shrink  from  places  w^here 
few  but  the  Catholic  sisters  have  had  the  courage  to  go.  Singly  as 
village  nurses  they  care  for  one  and  another  in  bodily  need.  In  trained 
companies  they  stand  by  the  side  of  the  physicians  in  the  hospitals. 


^"'•'^■•^"^  The  Ministry  of  Health  M7 

Both  men  and  women  meet  the  horrors  of  accident  and  the  dangers  of 
pestilence.  They  even  enHst  in  a  new  red  cross  service  to  the  wounded 
on  the  field  of  battle  that  is  a  truer  token  of  chivalry  than  the  enlist- 
ment of  the  medieval  crusader.  With  a  cup  of  cold  water  for  the 
parched  and  fevered  body  they  are  performing  a  Christly  service  that 
marks  tliis  period  as  eminently  humane,  and  characterizes  their  min- 
istry as  nobly  divine. 

Note  6.  The  Mind  Cure  Theory.  While  the  physical  scientists 
were  making  their  discoveries,  there  were  other  persons  who  worked 
on  the  theory  that  the  seat  of  disease  was  in  the  mind.  They  beheved 
that  a  sound  mind  would  make  and  keep  the  body  sound;  that  a  dis- 
eased imagination  was  responsible  for  many  ills  that  could  be  cured 
by  mental  treatment.  Not  all  such  practitioners  agreed  in  their 
methods  of  treatment,  but  they  did  agree  that  the  power  of  suggestion 
is  superior  to  the  power  of  drugs  as  a  curative  agent  in  at  least  some 
ailments.  Two  schools  of  such  thinkers  have  allied  themselves  with 
religion — those  who  depend  upon  the  theory  of  faith  cure,  and  the 
Christian  Scientists — and  they  may  be  taken  as  representatives  of  the 
whole  group. 

Note  7.  Faith  Healing.  Among  both  Catholics  and  Protestants 
there  have  occurred  many  remarkable  cures  that  cannot  be  explained 
satisfactorily  except  on  the  ground  of  a  strong,  religious  faith.  Such 
cures  date  back  a  long  way  in  Catholic  history  but  a  single  place  of 
pilgrimage  made  famous  in  the  nineteenth  century  sufficiently  illus- 
trates Catholic  faith  cure.  In  the  region  of  the  Pyrenees  in  southern 
France  is  a  town  of  eight  thousand  people  called  I^ourdes.  The  Virgin 
Mary  in  the  year  1858  is  said  to  have  revealed  to  a  peasant  girl  that  a 
spring  in  a  certain  grotto  possessed  miraculous  powers  of  healing.  The 
faithful  began  to  flock  to  the  shrine  and  enjoy  the  healing  properties 
of  the  waters,  until  it  became  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage.  In  America 
more  than  one  crippled  Catholic  has  found  relief  at  the  shrine  of  Saint 
Anne  de  Beaupre  in  Quebec,  where  the  relics  of  the  saint  took  the  place 
of  the  curative  waters  of  Lourdes;  and  they  have  left  their  crutches 
belli nd  as  mute  testimonials  to  their  cure. 

The  Protestant,  believing  in  neither  relics  nor  waters,  has  faith  that 
the  prayers  of  a  man  strong  in  his  grip  upon  the  Unseen  will  avail  much 
for  his  tortured  body,  and  he  too  gains  the  relief  he  seeks.  The 
Mormon  has  as  creditable  instances  to  relate  as  either  Catholic  or 
Protestant,  and  the  pagan  can  match  them  all.  Each  case  must  be 
ascribed  to  the  power  of  suggestion  to  affect  the  bodily  functions  and 
so  bring  about  a  ciure. 


248  Landmarks  in  Chridiari  History 


Lesson 


Note  8.  Christian  Science.  The  most  remarkable  type  of  mind 
cure  is  found  in  Christian  Science.  Mary  Baker  Eddy,  who  had 
practised  mental  healing,  and  taught  that  bodily  illness  was  a  delusion, 
published  in  1875  a  book  entitled  Science  and  Health,  with  Key  to  the 
Scriptures.  Tliis  book  set  forth  the  peculiar  system  that  she  called 
Christian  Science,  and  became  the  accepted  text-book  of  all  those  who 
received  the  principles  of  her  philosophy.  Critics  declared  that  Mrs. 
Eddy's  philosophy  was  crude,  and  that  Christian  Science  was  neither 
Clu'istian  nor  scientific,  but  those  who  experienced,  its  power  as  a  cura- 
tive agent  beheved  in  it  because  it  worked,  and  the  number  of  such 
persons  rapidly  increased.  The  first  church  of  tliis  sect  was  organized 
in  Boston,  with  Mrs.  Eddy  as  pastor,  in  1879;  hundreds  of  similar 
churches  were  organized  all  over  the  United  States;  and  the  teaching 
found  acceptance  in  high  social  circles  in  Great  Britain.  The  optimism 
and  good  cheer  that  are  characteristic  of  Christian  Scientists  have  com- 
mended the  doctrine  to  many  who  cannot  approve  it  intellectually,  but 
its  greatest  recommendation  is  its  power  of  suggestion  over  persons 
aflflicted  with  functional  disorders.  Like  faith  cure,  it  is  an  illustration 
of  the  power  of  human  thought. 

Note  9.  The  Conclusion  of  the  Whole  Mattel.  The  experience  of 
the  century  has  made  it  plain  that  the  crusade  against  disease  is  not 
a  simple  or  easy  one,  but  that  it  is  worth  much  individual  sacrifice  to 
alleviate  human  suffering.  It  has  shown  that  nature  must  receive 
assistance  to  release  the  grip  of  a  very  real  malady,  but  that  the  mind 
has  reservoirs  of  power  that  may  often  be  drawn  upon  by  those  who 
have  the  key.  It  has  revealed  the  important  fact  that  hygiene  is  of 
more  value  than  medicine.  Best  of  all  it  has  taught  us  that  he  who 
not  only  ministers  to  the  suffering  in  their  need,  but  also  removes  the 
causes  of  disease,  is  one  of  the  truest  disciples  of  the  Great  Physician, 
who  healed  the  sick  because  His  heart  was  overflowing  with  love. 
Science  has  become  the  handmaid  of  religion  in  promoting  the  kingdom 
of  God. 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Why  is  moral  restraint  necessary? 

2.  State  the  meaning  of  the  modern  temperance- crusade. 

3.  What  special  organization  and  leader  have  been  conspicuous? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  On  what  occasion  did  Jesus  speak  the  words  quoted  in  Note  1  ? 


^"^^y^"'  The  Ministry  of  Health  249 

2.  What  are  the  two  hnes  of   medical  development  characteristic  of 
the  nineteenth  century? 


3.  How  has  improvement  in  medical  science  taken  place? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  names  of  leading  medical  discoverers? 

5.  Can  minister  and  physician  work  together  for  the  sick? 

6.  Explain  how  hygiene  is  emphasized. 

7.  Show  how  nursing  is  a  divine  ministry. 

t 

8.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  mind  cure  theory? 

9.  Give  illustrations  of  faith  cure. 

10.  Describe  Christian  Science. 

Reading  References. 

(1)  Article  on  Medicine  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  11th  edition 
(section  on  Modern  Progress).  (2)  Article  on  Psychotherapy  in  New 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia.  (3)  Trine:  In  Tune  with  the  Infinite, 
(4)  Longfellow:  Santa  Filomena. 


250  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Lesson  46.    THE    GOSPEL    OF   BROTHERLY  LOVE.    Christian 
Charity  and  the  Social  Settlements. 

Sources. — Reports  of  philanthropic  societies  of  many  sorts;  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections;  the  letters  of  Edward 
Denison;  Jane  Addams'  Twenty  Years  at  Hull  House;  numerous  volumes  of 
Charities  and  The  Survey. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Give  special  attention  to  (a)  the 
old  and  the  new  principles  of  giving;  (6)  Edward  Denison  and  Toynbee  Hall; 
(c)  the  meaning  of  the  social  settlement;  {d)  Jane  Addams  at  Hull  House. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  special  class  discussion:  How  can  the 
church  co-operate  with  the  social  settlement? 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  the 
last  summary  is  complete.  (6)  If  in  the  city,  make  a  visit  to  a  social  settle- 
ment, or  talk  with  a  charity  visitor,  and  write  an  account  of  it  in  the  note- 
book. If  in  the  country,  think  how  Christian  people  might  do  more  for  the 
community,  and  write  down  the  result  in  the  note-book,  (c)  Find  out  all  the 
places  where  Jesus  speaks  of  the  poor,  {d)  Write  a  sketch  of  Jane  Addams. 
(e)  Make  a  list  of  all  the  activities  of  some  settlement  like  Hull  House. 

Note  1.  Catholic  Charity.  "  It  matters  little,"  said  an  eleventh 
century  monk,  "  that  our  churches  rise  to  heaven,  that  the  capitals  of 
their  pillars  are  sculptured  and  gilded,  that  our  parchment  is  tinted 
purple,  that  gold  is  melted  to  form  the  letters  of  our  manuscripts,  and 
that  their  bindings  are  set  with  precious  stones,  if  we  have  little  or  no 
care  for  the  meSibers  of  Christ,  and  if  Christ  himself  lies  naked  and 
dying  before  our  doors."  It  was  characteristic  of  the  medieval  monas- 
teries that  they  ministered  to  the  poor,  not  with  the  scientific  precision 
of  modern  charity  organizations,  but  on  the  principle  of  giving  to  every 
one  in  need,  whether  deserving  or  not.  A  special  officer  of  the  monas- 
tery, called  the  almoner,  had  charge  of  monastic  relief,  and  when  this 
relief  failed,  as  it  did  in  England  in  the  days  of  Henry  VIII's  destruc- 
tion of  the  monasteries,  it  became  necessary  for  the  government  to 
provide  a  plan  of  poor  relief.  The  practice  of  charity  was  also  a  part 
of  the  duty  of  every  parish  priest  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  it  must  be 
said  to  the  credit  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  that  it  has  always 
been  distinguished  for  that  form  of  social  service.  The  Catholic 
sisters  of  charity  are  witnesses  to  the  spirit  of  philantlu-opy  that 
characterizes  the  body. 

Note  2.  Charity  Organization.  In  Protestant  England  the  duty  of 
poor  relief  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  government,  and  colonial 
America  adopted  the  same  system.  But  the  spirit  of  brotherly  love 
needed  still  other  channels.  So  it  came  about  that  the  humanitarian 
days  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  a  great  increase  of  voluntary  charity, 
and  at  last  the  organization  of  voluntary  societies  to  regulate  the  miscel- 


Forty-six  rj.j^^  Q^^^^j^  ^j  Brothedy  Love  ^51 

laneous  giving,  which  was  doing  harm  as  well  as  good.  It  was  Dr. 
Chalmers,  the  famous  Scotch  divine,  who  instituted  the  system  of 
friendly  visiting  among  the  poor,  which  has  become  the  favorite  method 
of  present  day  investigation.  Edward  Denison,  a  London  investigator, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  Chalmers'  method  was  the  only  wise  one. 
He  said:  "  I  am  beginning  seriously  to  beheve  that  all  bodily  aid  to 
the^oor  is  a  mistake;  whereas  by  giving  alms  you  keep  them  perma- 
nently crooked.  Build  schoolhouses,  pay  teachers,  give  prizes,  frame 
workmen's  clubs,  help  them  to  help  themselves,  lend  them  your  brains, 
but  give  them  no  money,  except  what  you  sink  in  such  undertakings." 
On  this  principle  of  helping  only  in  emergencies,  and  continually  aiding 
the  poor  to  help  themselves,  modern  charity  organizations  have  been 
based.  There  is  still  room  for  the  personal  response  to  immediate  need, 
but  the  associated  charities  of  the  great  cities  are  most  effective  agents 
for  proper  methods  of  relief.  These  have  their  branches  in  various 
districts  of  the  cities  administered  from  central  headquarters,  depend 
on  voluntary  visitors  as  well  as  their  own  experts,  and  seek  the 
co-operation  of  churches  and  all  other  charitable  agencies.  All  the 
great  agencies  in  the  United  States  are  united Jn  a  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Corrections. 

Note  3.  The  Spirit  of  Love  vs.  the  Spirit  of  Greed.  Full  many  a 
knight,  like  Sir  Launfal,  sought  merit  in  the  days  of  chivalry,  by  throw- 
ing a  purse  to  the  beggar  whom  he  encountered  along  the  way.  Too 
many  a  philanthropist  has  hoped  for  a  favorable  balance  in  the  banking- 
house  of  Heaven  because  of  his  kind  deeds.  The  Pharisee  and  the 
Mohammedan  alike  give  alms  for  the  good  that  may  accrue  to  them- 
selves. This  spirit  of  selfish  gain  is  akin  to  the  spirit  of  the  beggar  who 
will  not  work.  But  the  gospel  of  brotherly  love  is  based  on  a  nobler 
principle,  and  that  gospel  has  been  having  a  mighty  influence  in  the 
last  fifty  years.  There  is  many  a  man  who  cannot  always  look  up 
with  the  optimism  of  Christian  Science;  there  are  not  a  few  who  cannot 
look  down  into  the  slums  with  the  Salvation  Army  lassies;  but  there  is 
no  one  who  cannot  lend  a  hand  to  a  suffering  friend  in  the  spirit  of 
Jesus.  There  is  hope  for  the  dweller  in  the  slums  because  the  spirit 
of  brotherhness  has  sent  men  and  women  who  have  had  opportunities 
for  knowledge  and  culture  to  live  among  the  poor,  and  to  minister  to 
them,  believing  that  inasmuch  as  they  minister  to  the  least  among 
humans  they  are  serving  the  Son  of  man. 

Note  4.  Social  Settlement.  The  pioneer  of  these  modern  friars 
was  Edward  Denison.  He  was  a  young  Oxford  man,  with  an  enthu- 
siasm for  humanity,  when  he  went  into  a  lowly  district  of  London,  and 


^52  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


offered  himself  to  the  parish  clergyman  as  a  helper  among  the  poor. 
He  made  his  home  among  the  people  whom  he  befriended.  He  sought 
their  acquaintance.  He  taught  the  young  in  a  night  school.  He  stood 
between  them  and  the  city  authorities.  "  I  shall  drive  the  sanitary 
inspector,"  said  he,  "  to  put  the  act  against  overcrowding  in  force, 
with  regard  to  some  houses  in  which  there  have  been  as  many  as  eight 
and  ten  bodies  occupying  one  room."  In  such  ways  as  these  he  showed 
the  people  that  he  was  their  friend.  This  single  pioneer  did  not  live 
long,  but  he  was  followed  by  others  from  the  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  In  1885  Toynbee  Hall  was  definitely  established  as 
the  home  of  several  who  had  caught  the  spirit  of  Denison  and  his  fol- 
lowers, and  who  had  decided  to  settle  among  the  social  outcasts  of 
London.  By  coming  into  close  touch  with  their  neighbors  in  all  the 
social  relations  that  are  characteristic  of  neighborhood  life,  they  were 
able  to  translate  the  spirit  of  their  gospel  into  concrete,  practical  help- 
fulness. 

Note  5.  The  Meaning  of  the  Social  Settlement.  The  social  set- 
tlement is  then  an  effort  to  bring  together  educated,  well-to-do,  and 
philanthropic  persons  with  the  poor,  untrained,  strugghng  masses  in 
the  worse  parts  of  the  city.  The  movement  is  not  confined  to  the  city. 
There  is  a  log  cabin  settlement  among  the  mountain  whites  in  North 
Carolina;  a  church  settlement  experiment  has  been  tried  in  rural  New 
Hampshire.  But  the  storm  and  stress  of  life  is  sternest  in  the  cities, 
and  the  motive  which  has  driven  Moravian  missionaries  to  the  most 
difficult  foreign  mission  fields  has  sent  most  of  the  social  settlers  into 
the  heart  of  the  great  city.  The  purpose  of  settlement  is  not  to  admin- 
ister charity,  though  settlement  workers  may  be  agents  of  the  charity 
organizations  of  the  city.  It  is  not  necessary  for  a  settlement  to  organ- 
ize clubs  and  classes,  though  the  workers  among  the  people  find  such 
schemes  among  the  most  useful  plans  for  popular  progress.  The  set- 
tlement is  merely  a  place  where  a  group  of  high-minded  men  and  women 
live,  and  try  to  exert  a  helpful  influence  by  their  very  presence  and 
interest  in  the  neighborhood.  Because  they  are  fellow -citizens  in  the 
same  ward  and  precinct  they  become  recognized  as  neighbors.  Their 
purpose  is  to  plant  an  oasis  in  the  desert,  and  if  the  people  of  the  desert 
will  camp  there  for  an  hour,  those  who  have  planted  the  oasis  will  be 
well  pleased.  But  settlement  workers  are  particularly  careful  not  to 
intrude  or  in  any  way  to  seem  to  patronize.  They  avoid  religion  and 
party  politics  because  they  do  not  want  to  appear  to  take  sides  or 
proselytize.  The  settlement  house  is  usually  the  dwelling  of  ten  to 
twenty  residents,  and  the  center  from  which   radiate  their  work   and 


Forty-Six  Yj^^  g^^^^i  ^j  Brotherly  Love  ^53 

influence.  It  is  in  this  fashion  that  the  social  settlement  has  found  its 
place  within  the  last  thirty  years,  and  it  has  shown  by  its  creation  of 
a  Christian  atmosphere  of  love  that  it  has  come  to  stay.  The  story  of 
one  settlement  and  its  well  known  head  is  an  epitome  of  settlement 
history. 

Note  6.  A  Friend  of  the  Poor.  If  Florence  Nightingale  was  the 
angel  of  the  camp  in  the  struggle  of  death  in  the  Crimea,  Jane  Addams 
has  been  the  angel  of  the  lowly  in  the  struggle  for  life  in  the  congested 
foreign  settlement  of  Chicago.  Miss  Addams  is  a  native  of  the  state 
that  gave  Lincoln  to  the  Union,  and  the  spirit  of  Lincoln  burned  in 
her  when  she  graduated  from  Rockford  College.  European  travel  did 
not  content  her.  She  longed  for  an  opportunity  to  serve  others,  but 
she  had  to  make  her  opportunity.  She  found  her  mission  by  founding 
Hull  House,  one  of  the  earliest  social  settlements  in  America.  There 
her  ministry  has  been  that  of  the  interpreter  of  American  life  and  ideals 
to  those  who  come  as  strangers  from  another  kind  of  life.  Because 
she  lives  her  creed,  she  has  been  a  most  effective  interpreter  of  the 
gospel  of  brotherly  love.  When  the  history  of  this  age  of  social  Chris- 
tianity is  written,  her  name  will  find  its  place  among  the  planters  of  the 
landmarks. 

Note  7.  Jane  Addams  at  Hull  House.  In  the  month  of  September 
1889,  Jane  Addams  and  a  friend  went  into  the  foreign  section  of  the 
city  of  Chicago,  leased  a  commodious  building  with  the  assistance  of 
interested  friends,  and  made  it  their  permanent  home.  The  purpose  of 
the  enterprise  was  to  show  that  the  real  meaning  of  democracy  and 
social  unity  is  social  friendship.  These  pioneers  believed  that  they 
could  make  their  lives  count  most  by  establisliing  just  as  many  points 
of  friendly  contact  as  possible  between  American  culture  and  citizen- 
ship and  the  untrained  but  human  stranger  in  a  great  American  city. 
They  were  wdlling  to  let  experience  guide  them  in  the  determination  of 
these  points  of  contact. 

The  first  undertakings  were  the  organization  of  clubs  for  the  children 
and  evening  classes  for  their  elders,  and  frequent  social  gatherings  at 
Hull  House.  "Perhaps  even  in  those  days,"  says  Miss  Addams,  "  we 
made  a  beginning  towards  that  object  which  was  afterwards  stated  in 
our  charter:  To  provide  a  center  for  a  higher  civic  and  social  life;  to 
institute  and  maintain  educational  and  philantlu-opic  enterprises,  and 
to  investigate  and  improve  the  conditions  in  the  industrial  districts  of 
Chicago."  Experience  showed  the  need  of  the  common  comforts  of 
life,  and  baths,  gymnasium,  and  diet  kitchen  were  introduced.  Co- 
operative undertakings  were  started  for  the  buying  of  coal  and  for  the 


254  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


boarding  of  working  girls.  Out  of  the  latter  has  grown  the  Jane  Club, 
affectionately  named  for  the  head  of  the  settlement.  After  five  years 
of  experience  the  residents  published  Hull  House  Maps  and  Papers, 
and  the  settlement  became  known  widely. 

The  activities  of  Hull  House  have  been  mainly  along  the  three  lines 
of  recreation,  education,  and  co-operation.  Recognizing  the  spirit  of 
youth  and  the  meagre  opportunities  of  homes  and  city  streets,  the  set- 
tlement promptly  supplied  diversions.  Conscious  of  the  l^ck  of  means 
of  training,  the  residents  provided  lecture  courses,  classes,  and  debating 
clubs.  Sympathetic  with  the  laborer,  Hull  House  made  friends  of  the 
trade  unions,  and  some  of  them  located  their  headquarters  at  the  set- 
tlement. To-day  Hull  House  is  the  leaven  of  democracy  and  of  right- 
eousness in  one  of  the  hugest  of  twentieth  century  cities. 

Note  8.  Old  and  New  Tjrpes  of  Christianity.  It  is  not  in  monastic 
retreats  that  the  saint  is  reared  to-day,  but  in  the  swirling  life  of  the 
city  streets.  It  is  not  in  ecumenical  councils  called  to  determine  creeds, 
but  in  the  great  conferences  of  social  workers  meeting  to  plan  for 
human  weal,  that  hearts  are  stirred  and  faces  glow.  It  is  not  ever}; 
one  that  says.  Lord,  Lord,  in  the  ritual's  measured  tone,  but  the  men 
and  women  who  do  the  will  that  reflect  most  truly  the  heart  of  God. 
It  is  doubtful  if  there  has  ever  been  a  time  since  Jesus  lived  when  His 
gospel  was  interpreted  more  truly  than  by  those  who  have  revealed 
the  meaning  of  divinity  in  actual  brotherliness. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  How  are  body  and  spirit  related  with  reference  to  health? 

2.  When  was  their  right  relation  first  understood.? 

3.  What  gains  have  been  made.? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  How  did  the  Catholic  monasteries  practise  charity.? 


2.  What  is  the  modern  principle  of  giving  to  the  poor.? 

3.  What  spirit  should  be  back  of  the  giving.? 


Forty  seven  Christianity  in  the  City  Slums  255 

4.  Who  was  Edward  Denison? 

5.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  social  settlement? 

6.  How  do  the  residents  live? 

7.  Describe  Jane  Add-ams. 

8.  Why  did  she  go  to  Chicago? 

9.  What  special  subjects  interest  the  workers  at  Hull  House? 


10.  Bring  out  the  contrast  between  the  old    and  the  new  types  of 
Cbjistianity. 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Addams:  Ttventy  Years  at  Hull  House.     {2)  Henderson:  Social 
Settlements.     (3)  Richmond:  Friendly  Visiting  Among  the  Poor. 


Lesson   47.     CHRISTIANITY   IN   THE    CITY    SLUMS.    William 
Booth  and  the  Salvation  Army. 

Sources. — Booth's  In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way  Out  is  a  description  of  the 
field  of  work  of  the  Salvation  Army;  the  workers  are  best  described  in  Booth- 
Tucker's  Life  of  Catherine  Booth,  and  Coates'  Life  Story  of  General  Booth.  The 
work  that  has  been  done  is  revealed  in  the  year  book  of  the  Salvation  Army. 
Some  of  the  results  are  expressed  dramatically  in  Begbie's  Tvnce-Born  Men. 
The  prison  work  of  the  Volunteers  appears  in  Maud  B.  Booth's  After  Prison — 
What? 


256  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson  in 
preparation  for  questions  in  the  class. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Note  especially:  (a)  the  new  im- 
pulse in  the  life  of  an  ordinary  boy;  {h)  the  meaning  of  the  slums;  (c)  the  growth 
of  the  Salvation  Army;  (d)  the  social  work  of  the  Army;  (e)  the  Volunteers  of 
America. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  consideration  and  discussion; 
In  what  ways  can  Christianity  be  carried  to  the  people  of  the  tenements  and 
the  slums  besides  the  work  of  the  Salvation  Army?  Can  the  people  be  attracted 
to  Protestant  churches? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Complete  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson.  (6)  Draw 
a  map  of  the  United  States  to  show  the  leading  cities  and  in  the  margin  write 
the  name  of  a  settlement  in  each  city,  (c)  Write  a  comparison  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans under  Francis  of  Assisi  and  the  Salvationists  under  William  Booth. 
(d)  Write  a  short  sketch  of  the  prison  work  of  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth. 

Note  1.  The  Begiiming.  One  evening  in  the  year  1844  an  English 
boy  attended  a  Methodist  prayer  meeting  in  Nottingham,  and  there 
surrendered  a  most  stubborn  will  to  the  keeping  of  God.  The  incident 
is  a  reminder  of  an  epochal  experience  of  John  Wesley;  but  it  was  not 
an  unusual  incident  and  would  not  be  remarkable  did  it  not  mark 
the  beginning  of  another  great  religious  enterprise  that  has  followed  in 
the  wake  of  Methodism  and  gleaned  the  fields  that  the  earlier  move- 
ment reaped.  The  fifteen- year-old  boy  was  William  Booth;  the  enter- 
prise that  he  was  to  estabhsh  was  the  worldwide  crusade  of  the  Salvation 
Army. 

Note  2.  The  Significance  of  It.  There  was  a  profound  meaning  in 
this  initial  act  of  William  Booth.  It  meant  a  new  step  in  the  expansion 
of  Christianity.  England  has  a  way  of  introducing  reforms  by  degrees. 
During  the  last  eighty  years  the  political  franchise  has  been  extended 
to  all  classes  of  the  people  by  three  definite  reform  bills.  In  the  same 
way  social  reform  has  moved  forward  one  step  at  a  time.  The  same 
holds  true  of  the  expansion  of  rehgion  in  England.  The  forms  of 
Protestantism  were  adopted  in  the  days  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns.  Real 
spiritual  religion  came  to  the  middle  classes  of  the  English  people 
through  Puritanism  and  the  Separatist  institutions  of  Congregation- 
alists.  Baptists,  and  Quakers.  Methodism  carried  this  new  evangeli- 
calism to  the  working  people  of  Great  Britain.  But  when  all  that 
was  done,  there  remained  one  class  which  had  never  felt  the  pulsing 
of  religious  fife  in  their  degenerate  veins — ^the  people  of  the  city  slums. 
It  was  to  be  the  mission  of  William  Booth  and  his  co-workers  to  carry 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  to  the  blind  and  halt  and  maimed  in  the  alleys  and 
closes  of  Britain's  lowest  abyss. 

Note  3.     How  there  Came  to  be  Slums.    The  slum  is  a  product  of 


Foreseen  Christianity  in  the  City  Slums  257 

modern  civilization.  It  may  have  had  its  counterpart  in  the  ghetto  of 
Rome  or  Alexandria,  but  the  conditions  that  produce  the  modern  slum 
have  changed.  The  slum  owes  its  existence  to  the  modern  industrial 
system  which  requires  many  people  to  hve  on  a  small  area  near  the 
factories  that  command  their  daily  toil.  They  and  their  families  herd 
in  large  tenement  houses,  provided  with  an  eye  to  the  profits  and  rented 
at  a  figure  not  warranted  by  the  accommodations.  In  America,  where 
immigrants  are  employed  extensively  in  the  factories,  the  tenement 
house  harbors  a  foreign  population  in  the  main.  The  tenement  house 
is  the  product  of  the  industrial  system;  it  is  itself  the  feeder  of  the  slum. 
There  are  not  a  few  among  the  people  of  the  tenements  who  have 
slipped  a  cog  in  the  social  machine.  They  fall  ill  and  cannot  work, 
or  they  get  into  bad  habits  and  adopt  criminal  practices.  Some  are 
victims  of  the  saloon  or  of  the  disorderly  house.  Those  who  for  one 
reason  or  another  lose  their  grip,  and  are  down  and  out,  find  their  way 
into  the  slum  and  help  to  foster  its  misery  and  its  degradation.  The 
lepers  of  modern  life  are  there;  the  frayed  ends  of  society  are  there; 
the  secrets  of  the  underworld  are  within  its  precincts.  Never  until 
the  days  of  William  Booth  and  the  Salvation  Army  did  the  gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ  lay  its  hand  upon  the  modern  city  slum  and  draw  from 
its  deptlis  one  and  another  of  the  wretches  who  were  numbered  among 
its  outcasts. 

Note  4.  The  Founder  of  the  Salvation  Army.  When  William 
Booth  went  out  from  the  prayer  meeting  where  he  had  met  God,  he 
entered  into  a  new  experience.  He  was  a  working  boy  with  a  mother 
to  support,  but  preaching  was  his  avocation.  Religion  was  his  hobby. 
When  his  day's  work  was  done  at  eight  o'clock,  he  went  out  into  the 
streets  or  the  fields,  gathered  an  audience,  and  talked  religion  to  them. 
He  was  made  a  Methodist  lay  preacher,  and  became  a  recognized 
leader  as  an  evangelist.  He  led  his  companions  from  the  Methodist 
chapel  into  the  street,  paraded  the  town,  and  returned  with  its  social 
refuse  gathered  into  his  net,  and  dumped  the  contents  into  the  chapel. 
His  betters  complained  at  the  human  assortment,  but  he  went  on  with 
his  collection  just  the  same.  Already  young  Booth  was  using  methods 
that  were  to  become  characteristic  of  the  later  army. 

In  time  Booth  was  ordained  and  given  a  settled  charge.  But  his 
temper  was  evangelistic,  and  he  proved  insubordinate.  The  Metho- 
dist system  had  no  room  for  such  an  independent,  unconventional 
individual  as  he,  for  the  earlier  Methodism  of  Wesley,  field  preacher, 
had  become  respectable  and  institutionalized.  The  young  evangelist 
betook   himself   to   the  heart  of  London,  as  the  first  Methodists  had 


258  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesion 


sought  the  open  places  in  the  country  and  the  rural  towns.  He  pitched 
his  gospel  tent  in  the  London  slums,  and  preached  there  the  story  of 
the  prodigal  son.  He  received  vituperation  and  abuse  from  those 
worthies  of  a  higher  social  scale  who  disapproved  of  his  actions;  he 
felt  the  blows  of  less  refined  enemies  who  pelted  him  with  stones.  But 
he  persevered  because  it  was  in  his  nature  to  persevere.  At  first  the 
enterprise  that  he  established  in  London  was  called  the  Christian  Mis- 
sion; by  a  sudden  inspiration  the  followers  of  Booth  adopted  the  name 
of  the  Salvation  Army,  and  William  Booth  became  its  general. 

Note  5.  Extending  the  Campaign.  The  general  got  his  first  soldiers 
from  the  converts  that  he  made  from  the  earnest  Christian  workers  in 
the  churches  who  accepted  the  missionary  work  that  he  was  trying  to 
do.  After  the  mission  took  its  name  in  1878  General  Booth  organized 
it  on  a  military  plan,  showing  an  organizing  genius  that  would  do  honor 
to  a  trained  man.  He  was  not  content  to  do  his  work  in  the  metropolis, 
but  maintaining  his  own  quarters  there,  he  sent  out  his  military  posts 
into  the  slums  of  the  other  cities  of  Great  Britain  until  he  had  drawn 
them  all  within  his  sphere  of  operations.  As  if  this  were  not  enough 
he  drilled  his  recruits  with  an  eye  to  wider  service.  Then  he  organized 
armies  for  foreign  occupation.  He  appointed  members  of  his  own 
family  as  chief  officers,  and  sent  them  out  to  India,  to  the  United  States, 
to  Paris,  and  Sweden^,  and  Canada.  Everywhere  military  methods 
were  employed  to  further  the  evangelism  which  was  the  inspiration  of 
the  movement.  A  squad  of  workers  paraded  the  streets  regardless 
of  weather  or  human  opposition.  Strains  of  martial  music  from  their 
own  bands  inspired  the  workers  and  aroused  the  people.  Then  at 
some  vantage  point  by  the  way  they  formed  their  line  of  battle,  and  in 
song,  and  prayer,  and  exhortation  poured  their  hot  shot  into  the  col- 
lected throng.  They  began  in  poverty  and  without  powerful  sup- 
porters, but  their  numbers  swelled,  and  contributions  began  to  come 
in  from  sympathizers  of  various  sorts,  until  it  became  possible  to  pro- 
vide buildings  for  barracks  and  halls  for  meetings  and  other  purposes. 
In  this  manner  the  Salvation  Army  recruited  its  ranks  for  a  dozen 
years,  confining  itself  mainly  to  evangehstic  activities. 

Note  6.  The  Bugle  Strikes  the  Social  Note.  In  1889  came  the 
great  dock  strike  in  London.  The  unskilled  laborers  had  joined  hands 
for  the  first  time  in  organized  revolt  against  injustice.  The  sympathy 
of  the  Army  was  with  those  who  felt  themselves  oppressed,  but  efforts 
to  help  them  were  hmited  to  spiritual  consolation.  One  day  a  certain 
captain  of  the  Army  was  holding  a  meeting  among  the  unemployed  in 
London,  when  he  became  convinced  that  it  was  useless  to  talk  to  these 


Forty-seven  Christianity  in  the  City  Slums  259 

starving  men  about  the  bread  of  life  for  hungry  souls  unless  something 
should  be  done  to  relieve  their  bodily  hunger.  He  went  to  General 
Booth  and  urged  this  principle  upon  him,  but  he  received  no  encourage- 
ment. In  his  disappointment  the  captain  resigned  from  the  service. 
But  the  incident  made  its  impression  upon  the  head  of  the  Army. 
Booth  gave  way,  and  in  1890  the  retired  captain  was  recalled,  made 
commissioner  of  social  reform,  and  given  encouragement  to  develop 
a  department  of  social  service  in  the  Army. 

Note  7.  How  Social  Reform  Worked  Out.  If  ever  a  class  of  people 
needed  to  be  helped  socially  it  was  the  outcasts  of  the  slums.  General 
Booth  had  worked  on  the  principle  that  if  a  person  experienced  saving 
grace  from  on  high,  it  made  no  difference  how  low  in  the  mire  he  had 
sunk,  that  experience  was  enough  to  make  him  over  new  and  keep  him 
pure.  But  over  and  over  again  the  environment  conquered  the  spirit. 
In  spite  of  the  wonderful  lives  of  hundreds  of  converted  men  and  women, 
there  were  not  a  few  who  could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  slip  back 
into  their  old  ways,  and  it  became  evident  that  the  field  of  the  cam- 
paign must  be  enlarged.  The  army  had  been  fighting  a  spiritual 
warfare;  henceforth  it  began  also  a  social  campaign.  Shelters  and  food 
depots  were  provided  for  the  needy,  and  a  labor  bureau  for  the  unem- 
ployed. Factories  were  planned  and  the  necessary  funds  were  pro- 
cured from  the  phenomenal  sale  of  General  Booth's  book  entitled 
In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way  Out.  A  pet  scheme  was  the  provision 
of  cheap  lodging  houses.  Finally  the  fertile  brain  of  General  Booth 
evolved  a  scheme  for  a  system  of  colonies,  by  which  the  person  who  was 
to  be  helped  up  was  given  a  start  in  the  city,  then  sent  out  into  the 
country,  and  at  last,  if  he  proved  himself  worthy,  was  to  be  given  a 
new  start  oversea.  In  the  United  States  alone  the  Army  now  has 
scores  of  lodging-houses,  industrial  and  rescue  homes,  and  shelter  and 
food  depots,  besides  its  regular  rehgious  missions. 

Note  8.  The  Volunteers  of  America.  The  arbitrary  military 
government  of  General  Booth  did  not  work  altogether  well  in  such  a 
democratic  country  as  the  United  States.  In  time  Commander  and 
Mrs.  Ballington  Booth  withdrew  with  some  of  their  followers  from 
the  Army,  and  organized  the  Volunteers  of  America.  This  organiza- 
tion, while  never  large,  has  performed  a  special  mission  to  some  to 
whom  the  methods  of  the  Salvation  Army  did  not  appeal.  Mrs.  Booth 
has  been  especially  successful  in  her  reform  work  for  prisoners  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country. 

Note  9.     The  Salvation  Army  in  History.    The  organization  of  this 


^60  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^'"^ 

unique  social  and  religious  institution  will  take  its  place  alongside  the 
order  of  the  Franciscan  friars,  as  patterned  in  purpose  after  the  religion 
of  Jesus.  The  Salvationists  have  followed  literally  His  injunction  to 
go  out  among  the  hedges  and  the  byways  and  gatlier  in  the  outcasts. 
They  have  taken  the  Bible  as  their  manual  of  mihtary  tactics  and  their 
guide  to  discipline.  Their  theology  is  that  of  the  Primitive  Methodists. 
But  their  enthusiasm  is  stimulated  by  the  victories  that  they  are 
winning  steadily  over  sin  and  crime  and  degradation,  and  the  indi- 
viduals that  they  are  lifting  out  of  the  slime  of  the  city  slum.  WilHam 
Booth  and  his  Army  are  a  landmark  in  Christian  history  because  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Master  they  have  been  missionaries  to  the  poorest  and 
the  weakest  of  God's  suffering  children. 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson, 

1.  How  has  the  gospel  of  brotherly  love  been  interpreted? 

2.  What  methods  have  been  used.? 

3.  What  is  the  special  social  need  of  this  period? 


Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 

1.  What  was  the  special  significance  of  the  conversion  of  William 
Booth? 


2.  What  is  it  that  has  produced  the  city  slum? 

3.  Describe  the  slum  people. 

4.  Explain  how  Booth  became  a  slum  evangelist. 

5.  Why  is  the  organization  called  the  Salvation  Army? 

6.  What  are  the  characteristic  revival  methods  of  the  Army? 


FoTty-eighi  Christianity  in  the  Rural  Villages  261 

7.  How  did  it  happen  that  the  Army  undertook  the  work  of  social 
relief? 


8.  What  methods  of  relief  work  have  been  adopted? 


9.  What  are  the  Volunteers  of  America? 


10.  Explain  the  place  of  the  Salvationists  in  Christian  history. 


Reading  References. 

(i)  Russell:  A  Rescuer  of  Ruined  Lives,  an  article  in  the  Missionary 
Review  of  the  World,  June,  1909,  pp.  451-456.  {2)  Woods:  English 
Social  Movements,  pp.  170-181.  (3)  Benedict:  Waifs  of  the  Slums. 
{4)  Begbie:  Twice  Born  Men. 


Lesson  48.     CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  RURAL  VILLAGES.    Oberlin 
in  the  French  Mountains. 

Sources. — Lives  of  country  clergymen;  descriptions  of  rural  life;  Anderson's 
The  Country  Town;  recent  periodical  literature.  There  are  several  memoirs  of 
Oberlin,  based  on  Stuber's  Life;  the  most  readable  account  is  Beard's  Story 
of  John  Frederick  Oberlin. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summaries  of  recent  lessons. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  with  special  attention  to  (a)  the 
story  of  Oberlin;  (6)  the  task  of  the  church  in  the  country;  (c)  the  story  of  an 
Illinois  church;  [d)  the  importance  of  rural  service. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  special  topic  for  class  discussion :  WTiat  are  some 
of  the  possible  ways  that  a  church  may  use  to  improve  social  conditions  in  a 
rural  community?  , 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Complete  all  summaries  up  to  date.  (6)  Draw  a 
diagram  to  show  the  streets  or  roads  of  a  rural  community  with  which  you  are 
familiar,  and  locate  on  it  the  principal  public  buildings.  Mark  with  a  cross 
those  that  ought  not  to  be  used  for  present  purposes;  mark  with  a  circle  those 
that  are  especially  useful.  On  the  margin  make  a  list  of  improvements  that 
are  needed,  (c)  Make  a  list  of  the  present  activities  of  the  church,  and  in, 
a  parallel  column  note  other  desirable  things  that  are  not  tried. 


262  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


Note  1.  The  Setting  of  the  Story.  On  the  long-disputed  border 
land  between  France  and  Germany  rises  a  low  range  of  mountains, 
none  of  them  over  four  thousand  feet  high,  on  the  slope  of  which  was 
situated  the  village  of  Waldbach,  the  parish  of  John  Frederick  Oberiin. 
Above  it  climbed  the  ridge  of  the  mountains,  to  a  top  that  was  covered 
with  snow  from  September  to  May;  below  it  lay  the  Ban-de-Ia-Roche, 
a  valley  named  from  a  nobleman's  castle,  with  nine  thousand  acres 
of  partly  wooded  land.  The  climate  among  the  hills  was  often  severe. 
The  cultivation  of  the  land  gave  small  return  to  the  few  families  who 
Hved  in  the  district.  Deadly  pestilence  and  the  hardships  of  war  vexed 
the  country.  Altogether  it  was  one  of  the  most  discouraging  parishes 
conceivable  in  which  a  country  minister  might  set  to  work. 

Note  2.  Christianity  among  the  Hills.  The  parish  possessed  two 
advantages.  Its  type  of  religion  was  Protestant,  and  it  enjoyed  reli- 
gious liberty  at  a  time  when  France  was  not  friendly  to  that  idea.  Its 
pastors  were  content,  however,  to  maintain  the  forms  of  religion  and 
to  do  little  else  for  their  people.  The  result  was  that  the  people  were 
untaught  and  uninspired,  content  to  drag  out  a  miserable  existence 
among  the  hills.  Christianity  had  no  reality  for  them ;  it  did  not  enter 
helpfully  into  their  lives. 

In  the  year  1750  there  came  into  this  parish  a  superior  young  clergy- 
man whose  name  was  Stuber.  He  saw  at  once  that  the  people  could 
not  be  open-minded  to  spiritual  influences  unless  they  had  more  knowl- 
edge. So  he  established  a  school  in  each  village  at  his  own  expense, 
introduced  music  and  Bible  instruction,  and  repaired  the  church.  His 
was  a  hard-working  but  heart-breaking  ministry,  and  little  had  been 
accomplished  when  Stuber  was  forced  to  withdraw  from  the  field. 

Note  3.  The  Call  of  OberUn.  John  Frederick  Oberiin  was  a  young 
man  of  twenty-seven  when  Stuber  laid  down  his  enterprise  at  Wald- 
bach. He  had  been  born  in  the  border  city  of  Strassburg  into  a  family 
of  distinction;  he  had  been  well  educated  and  had  obtained  the  uni- 
versity degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy;  he  had  been  a  tutor,  and  was 
under  engagement  as  an  army  chaplain,  when  Stuber  found  him  out 
and  presented  to  liim  the  claims  of  his  poor  parish  in  the  Vosges  Moun- 
tains. "  The  Master  you  have  to  serve  calls  you  by  my  voice,"  said 
Stuber.  "  Listen!  you  must  become  pastor  at  Waldbach.  There  are 
a  hundred  poor  and  wretched  families  in  want  of  the  bread  of  life; 
four  or  five  hundred  to  direct  and  save."  "There  are  everywhere 
souls  to  save  and  direct,"  replied  Oberiin,  "  and  in  the  regiments  of 
the  king  more  than  elsewhere;  as  a  chaplain  I  am  going  to  hunt  Satan." 
After  further  conversation  Stuber  said,  "  I  will  not  urge  you  now;  I 


Forty-eight  Christianity  in  the  Rural  Villages  263 

will  come  to-morrow."  '*  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  till  to-morrow  to 
ask  God  to  enlighten  us,"  was  the  response,  and  together  they  knelt 
on  the  attic  floor  of  Oberlin's  room  and  the  call  was  confirmed  by  the 
inner  spirit.  It  was  not  an  attractive  prospect.  Few  rural  parishes 
are.  Stuber  presented  hard  facts,  as  did  Wilham  Booth  when  he  called 
for  Army  volunteers  in  the  words:  "  I  want  recruits.  We  cannot  offer 
you  great  pay,  social  position,  or  any  glitter  and  tinsel  of  man's  glory; 
in  fact  we  can  promise  little  more  than  rations,  plenty  of  hard  work, 
and  probably  no  little  of  worldly  scorn;  but  if  on  the  whole  you  believe 
you  can  in  no  other  way  help  your  Lord  so  well  and  bless  humanity  so 
much,  you  will  brave  the  opposition  of  friends,  abandon  earthly  pros- 
pects, trample  pride  under  foot,  and  come  out  and  follow  him  in  this 
new  crusade."  In  this  spirit  the  cultured  scholar  went  to  live  among 
the  poor  and  ignorant  people  of  the  hills,  and  to  be  to  them  for  many 
years  a  heroic  man  of  God. 

Note  4.  Instances  of  Applied  Christianity.  The  ignorant  parish- 
ioners of  Waldbach  had  no  desire  for  a  pastor  whose  Christianity 
included  schooHng  as  an  essential.  Like  many  modern  Christians  they 
believed  in  the  regular  performance  of  certain  rehgious  ceremonies,  but 
their  Christianity  was  not  expansive  enough  to  include  the  activities 
of  every  day.  Nevertheless  Oberhn  followed  in  the  path  of  Stuber  in 
providing  schools,  even  though  he  had  to  meet  most  of  the  expense. 
Then  he  saw  that  the  farming  district  needed  to  be  improved.  Only 
good  methods  joined  with  the  most  diligent  cultivation  would  reward 
the  inhabitants  with  good  crops  in  such  a  difficult  country.  Pastor 
Oberhn  made  it  his  business  to  encourage  the  irrigation  of  the  dry  fields 
and  the  draining  of  the  wet  meadows;  he  instructed  them  in  methods 
of  fertilizing  the  land;  he  introduced  new  grasses  and  a  more  general 
use  of  the  potato;  he  induced  them  to  plant  orchards,  and  to  introduce 
better  cattle;  he  brought  improved  agricultural  implements  from  Strass- 
burg,  and  sold  them  to  the  people  on  instalments.  They  were  very 
slow  to  put  confidence  in  all  these  proposed  improvements,  and  re- 
quired ocular  demonstration  before  they  believed  in  him.  His  crown- 
ing success  was  the  building  of  a  difficult  road  and  bridge  which  they 
had  never  believed  possible.  With  all  this  practical  ministry  he  re- 
mained a  simple,  earnest  preacher  of  eternal  verities,  and  a  faithful 
shepherd  of  the  souls  of  his  humble  folk. 

Note  5.  Rural  Parishes.  Not  many  rural  districts  have  been 
socially  and  economically  transformed  by  the  efforts  of  one  pastor  like 
Oberlin's  parish  in  the  Ban-de-la-Roche.  Yet  Christian  ministry  has 
had'  its  place  of  service  more  often  in  the  country  than  in  the  town. 


264  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^^^'"^ 

Charles  Kingsley  spent  many  years  in  the  rural  parish  of  Eversley  at 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  England,  and  used  similar 
means  to  uplift  the  common  folk.  There  have  been  later  instances  in 
more  than  one  country  of  a  rural  Christianity  that  benefited  the  hfe 
of  the  whole  community.  But  applied  Christianity  has  been  tried 
most  often  in  the  modern  city,  and  especially  in  connection  with  insti- 
tutional churches.  In  recent  years  the  American  countryside  has  been 
receiving  more  attention.  It  is  realized  that  the  strength  of  the  cities 
has  come  from  the  rural  districts,  and  that  it  is  the  homes  and  churches 
of  the  country  that  have  supplied  the  moral  nurture  so  necessary  to 
the  building  of  personal  character  and  the  achievement  of  success.  It 
is  now  seen  that  the  quality  of  Christianity  in  the  rural  villages  is  more 
important  than  that  of  Christianity  in  the  city  slums. 

Note  6.  The  Task  of  the  Rural  Church.  It  has  become  apparent 
to  some  of  those  who  are  best  informed  that  the  church  has  a  duty  to 
take  the  lead  in  a  definite  plan  for  rural  betterment.  There  must  be 
investigation  of  actual  conditions,  instruction  of  the  people  in  the 
methods  of  improving  conditions  that  are  not  right,  and  constant  inspi- 
ration that  the  enthusiasm  of  the  reformers  may  not  flag.  In  this  task 
the  church  has  a  right  to  expect  the  co-operation  of  all  organizations 
that  have  a  vital  interest  in  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  This  co- 
operation has  been  given  already.  During  his  administration  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  emphasized  the  importance  of  dealing  with  pressing 
rural  problems,  and  to  make  plain  the  needs  of  the  country  he  appointed 
a  Rural  Life  Commission  which  made  an  extensive  investigation  and 
reported  its  findings.  More  local  investigation  has  been  made  by 
other  interested  organizations.  Churches  themselves  organized  rural 
departments,  and  the  Presbyterian  Board  has  carried  on  thorough 
investigations  in  certain  counties  in  Pennsylvania,  the  South,  and  the 
Middle  West.  Though  the  movement  is  recent,  plans  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  church  people  in  methods  of  community  betterment  have  been 
inaugurated,  and  in  some  instances  have  been  worked  out  successfully 
through  a  term  of  years.  Witli  this  investigation  and  instruction 
ministers  have  not  failed  to  give  the  spiritual  inspiration,  without 
which  every  plan  of  practical  reform  would  be  fruitless. 

Note  7.  A  Country  Church  in  Illinois.  A  striking  example  of  the 
expansion  of  Christianity  that  is  needed  in  the  rural  villages  of  the 
United  States  is  furnished  by  the  experience  of  a  rural  minister  during 
the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Pres- 
byterian church  that  had  been  conservatively  pursuing  its  halting  way 
for  nearly  seventy  years.     There  was  great  difficulty  in  maintaining 


Farty^ight  Christianity  in  the  Rural  Villages  m5 

the  regular  functions  of  the  organization,  and  no  thought  of  campaign- 
ing for  community  welfare.  But  youthful  zeal  had  ambitions,  and  the 
minister,  fresh  from  the  theological  school,  boldly  introduced  larger 
plans.  His  first  enterprise  was  to  develop  the  musical  talent  of  the 
community.  This  he  did  until  individuals  gained  proficiency,  and 
quartettes  and  choruses  became  expert  in  their  ministry  to  church  and 
neighborhood.  Athletics  interested  the  young  people.  Various  kinds 
of  entertainments  with  local  talent  took  the  place  of  questionable  amuse- 
ments. Young  men's  and  young  women's  classes  and  clubs  were  or- 
ganized and  given  work  to  do  as  well  as  study.  The  church  became 
the  social  center  of  the  neighborhood,  and  once  a  year  the  whole  com- 
munity came  together  for  a  "  round-up  of  the  year's  work."  The 
people  of  the  community  were  given  new  subjects  of  interest  to  think 
about;  they  were  taught  improved  methods  of  living;  with  all  the  rest 
they  were  inspired  to  do  things.  The  reward  came  to  tlie  church  in 
enlarged  resources  which  made  possible  a  new  meeting-house,  and  in 
a  double  membership;  but  even  more  in  the  consciousness  that  its 
applied  Christianity  had  become  a  power  for  good  to  the  people  of  that 
whole  countryside. 

Note  8.  The  Need  of  Leadership.  The  tide  of  modern  life  sets 
towards  the  city.  The  country  villages  have  been  drained  of  much 
of  their  best  blood.  It  is  the  task  of  the  rural  church  to  strengthen 
the  things  that  remain.  Unless  the  American  social  stock  is  enriched 
at  its  roots,  it  can  hardly  be  expected  to  dominate  the  millions  of  immi- 
grants from  oversea.  It  is  coming  to  be  a  serious  question  whether 
the  country  districts  can  continue  to  supply  brain  and  brawn  for  the 
consumption  of  the  town.  Clean-limbed,  keen-eyed,  and  quick-witted 
must  be  the  men  who  attain  the  national  leadership  in  the  twentieth 
century.  Back  of  them  must  be  pure,  intelligent  homes,  well-equipped 
schools,  and  up-to-date  churches,  if  the  supply  is  to  be  equal  to  the 
demand.  The  rural  communities  greatly  need  leaders  with  the  devo- 
tion of  John  Frederick  Oberlin,  who  will  catch  a  vision  of  a  broad 
mission,  and  who  will  not  be  content  until  they  see  the  routine  Chris- 
tianity of  the  normal  rural  church  expand  into  a  larger  ministry  to  the 
whole  community. 


Questions  on  the  Recent  Lessons. 

1.  How  do  body  and  mind  affect  each  other? 

2.  How  has  brotherly  love  found  Christian  expression.? 

3.  Explain  why  such  expression  is  needed  in  these  days. 


^66  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^"^ 

4.  Who  founded  the  Salvation  Army? 

5.  What  was  its  object? 

6.  How  has  it  enlarged  its  usefulness? 


Question?  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Describe  the  country  into  which  Oberlin  went. 


2.  What  has  been  done  for  the  people? 


3.  Who  was  Oberlin? 


4.  Why  did  he  not  choose  to  go  elsewhere? 


5.     Describe  the  methods  that  he  employed  to  improve  the  district 
in  which  he  ministered. 


6.  Why  are  rural  villages  as  important  fields  of  Christian  service 
city  slums? 


7.  What  are  the  special  tasks  of  the  rural  church? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  agencies  that  have  been  at  work? 

9.  Tell  the  story  of  the  rural  church  in  Illinois. 

10.  What  are  the  qualities  needed  for  leadership? 


Forty  nine  Christianity  in  Education  267 

Reading  References. 

(1)  Beard:  The  Story  of  John  Frederick  Oberlin.  {2)  Butterfield: 
The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem,  ch.  5.  (3)  Wilson:  The 
Church  of  the  Open  Country.     {4)  Hoyt:  The  Call  of  the  Country  Church, 


Lesson  49.    CHRISTIANITY    IN    EDUCATION.     The    Christian 
Schools  and  the  Christian  Press. 

Sources. — Reports  of  English  and  American  governments,  education  socie- 
ties, and  private  foundations;  Proceedings  of  the  Religious  Education  Associa- 
tion; catalogues  of  acstdemies  and  colleges;  religious  periodicals. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  giving  special  attention  to  (a)  the 
origin  of  the  Sunday  school;  (6)  Sunday  school  methods  in  the  United  States; 
(c)  the  establishment  of  schools  of  higher  learning;  (d)  college  Christianity; 
(c)  the  Christian  press. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topics  for  special  discussion:  How  can  a  person 
with  an  ordinary  education  broaden  his  Christian  ideas?  How  can  the  Sunday 
school  help  him? 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  Complete 
the  summary  of  the  last  lesson.  (6)  Write  a  description  of  the  methods  used 
in  this  lesson  with  those  used  in  some  other  system,  like  the  International, 
(c)  Prepare  an  outline  of  a  lesson  on  the  education  of  Jesus,  as  told  in  the  gospels. 

Note  1.  Two  Realms  of  Christian  Expansion.  Up  to  this  point  the 
story  of  the  expansion  of  Christianity  in  the  nineteenth  century  has 
been  a  story  of  the  expansion  of  interests.  The  motives  that  have  led 
to  larger  activity  have  been  stimulated  by  a  broader  sympathy  than 
most  Christians  previously  had  felt.  The  humanitarian  impulse  found 
its  outlet  in  many  directions, — in  foreign  and  home  missions,  in  emanci- 
pation and  temperance  efforts,  in  charity  and  social  betterment.  The 
last  four  lessons  of  this  quarter  describe  an  expansion  of  ideas  that  has 
been  taking  place  concurrently  with  an  enlargement  of  interests.  Tliis 
expansion  of  ideas  is  partly  the  result  of  the  schools  and  the  press, 
partly  of  the  new  scientific  spirit,  and  partly  of  the  close-knit  associa- 
tions of  business  and  society.  It  is  the  union  of  the  broader  interests 
and  the  larger  ideas  that  has  tended  to  make  religion  less  a  matter  of 
personal  and  selfish  interest,  and  instead  has  socialized  it. 

Note  2.  Experiments  in  Christian  Education.  It  has  been  a  prin- 
ciple of  Christian  people  in  all  the  centuries  that  their  children  should  be 
instructed  in  right  living  and  in  the  fundamentals  of  the  Christian  faith, 
but  they  have  not  been  agreed  as  to  how  it  should  be  done.     In  earlier 


268  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Lesson 

times  Christian  education  was  the  task  of  the  church.  The  catechetical 
schools  of  the  Roman  period,  and  the  cathedral  and  monastic  schools 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  are  examples  of  that  kind  of  training.  The  Refor- 
mation gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  instruction  of  children,  and  each 
of  the  great  Reformed  churches  produced  its  catecliism,  which  was  used 
in  the  home  and  by  the  teacher  in  the  church  to  train  the  minds  of  the 
cliildren.  In  modern  times  national  systems  of  education  have  come 
into  existence,  but  the  schools  have  been  secularized  to  such  an  extent 
in  the  United  States  that  religious  and  even  moral  instruction  is  largely 
left  out.  This  has  thrown  back  the  responsibility  upon  the  home  and 
the  church.  The  church  has  attempted  to  meet  the  responsibility  by 
inaugurating  a  system  of  Sunday  schools  for  elementary  instruction 
in  the  Bible,  and  privately  endowed  schools  of  higher  learning  for  the 
perpetuation  of  Christian  ideas  in  the  midst  of  the  broad  system  of 
modern  education. 

Note  3.  Robert  Raikes  and  the  Sunday  School.  In  England  m 
the  eighteenth  century  there  was  no  adequate  system  of  education  for 
all  the  children  of  the  nation.  Village  schoolmasters  on  small  pay 
taught  in  rural  districts  wherever  money  was  provided  by  individuals 
or  churches  for  such  instruction,  and  charity  schools  abounded;  but 
there  was  need  of  a  better  organization  when  Robert  Raikes  introduced 
his  Sunday  school  plan. 

Robert  Raikes  was  a  printer  and  editor  in  Gloucester,  England,  in 
the  year  1780.  He  was  walking  one  morning  in  a  factory  district, 
when  he  was  disturbed  by  the  apparent  degradation  of  the  children  in 
the  street,  and  after  musing  upon  what  his  investigation  disclosed,  he 
planned  to  open  a  school  for  their  benefit.  He  found  four  women  who 
were  wilHng  to  teach  the  children  on  Sundays  for  the  wage  of  a  shilling. 
The  children  were  willing  to  attend,  and  the  plan  proved  a  success. 
Elementary  instruction  was  given  in  reading  and  in  the  catechism. 
The  cliildren  were  required  to  appear  with  clean  hands  and  faces,  and 
those  who  made  most  satisfactory  progress  were  rewarded  with  shoes 
and  clothing  and  with  Bibles.  A  large  part  of  the  day  was  given  up 
to  the  teaching  and  to  religious  exercises.  After  its  success  was  estab- 
lished beyond  a  doubt,  Raikes  published  the  story,  and  the  scheme  was 
widely  adopted.  In  some  cases  the  school  was  held  on  Saturday  as 
well  as  on  Sunday,  but  with  the  increase  of  day  schools,  the  Sunday 
school  became  restricted  to  religious  instruction. 

Note  4.  Religious  Education  in  the  United  States.  Before  the 
Revolution  there  was  less  need  of  the  Sunday  school  in  America  than 
in  England.     The  religious  training  of  the  children  of  Puritan  New 


FoHy-nine  Christianity  in  Education  269 

England,  at  least,  was  carefully  provided  for  in  the  home  and  the 
church.  But  after  the  Revolutionary  War  it  was  very  apparent  that 
just  such  an  institution  was  needed,  and  the  American  Sunday  school 
was  started  on  the  same  plan  as  the  English.  Then  the  churches  took 
it  up,  and  drew  into  their  Sunday  school  sessions  all  classes  of  people. 
Local  church  initiative  was  followed  by  the  organization  of  Sunday 
School  Unions,  and  eventually  by  the  adoption  of  an  International 
System  of  lessons  for  the  use  of  all  denominations. 

Improvement  in  method  of  instruction  kept  pace  with  the  progress 
of  organization.  At  first  the  memorizing  of  Bible  verses  or  the  use 
of  a  catechism  was  the  prevaihng  method  of  instruction.  This  was 
supplemented  by  the  use  of  question  books  with  regularly  scheduled 
lessons  in  the  teaching  of  the  Bible.  In  1865  John  H.  Vincent,  a 
Methodist  preacher,  introduced  the  plan  of  a  lesson  quarterly,  and  this 
was  developed  into  the  system  now  generally  in  use.  A  uniform  plan 
was  adopted  by  a  National  Sunday  School  convention  tlirough  the 
efforts  of  B.  F.  Jacobs,  and  all  the  leading  evangelical  denominations 
proceeded  to  publish  the  International  lessons  as  planned  by  an  inter- 
denominational committee.  In  recent  years  the  uniform  system  has 
been  giving  way  to  a  better  graded,  more  flexible  arrangement  in  many 
schools.  In  1903  the  Christian  educational  agencies  of  the  United 
States  united  in  a  ReHgious  Education  Association,  which  aims  to 
improve  and  aflfiliate  all  educational  efl^orts  in  Sunday  schools,  colleges, 
and  professional  schools  in  the  interests  of  rehgious  efficiency. 

Note  5.  The  Net  Result  of  Sunday  School  Teaching.  The  idea  of 
an  educational  department  of  the  church  is  a  most  valuable  conception. 
The  Sunday  school  in  actual  practice  has  had  only  a  partial  success. 
The  schools  have  depended  mainly  on  volunteer  teachers  who  are 
untrained  in  methods  of  teaching,  and  in  an  adequate  knowledge  of 
the  Bible.  The  result  has  been  that  pupils  have  gained  little  real 
knowledge  of  their  one  text-book.  The  Sunday  school  has  served  as 
a  feeder  to  the  church  through  the  earnest  efforts  of  teachers  to  impress 
upon  their  pupils  the  need  of  personal  religion.  The  net  result  of  the 
Sunday  school  movement  therefore  has  been  the  encouragement  of 
good  motives,  but  little  real  education  in  the  truths  of  religion.  The 
main  expansion  of  ideas  has  come  through  the  schools  of  higher 
learning. 

Note  6.  Academies  and  Colleges.  Two  motives  prompted  the 
organization  of  academies  and  colleges.  One  was  to  provide  a  train- 
ing for  boys  and  girls  that  should  be  Christian  in  its  spirit  but  broad  in 
its  culture.     Sometimes  these  academies  were  day  schools,  sometimes 


270  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


boarding  schools,  but  the  essential  thing  about  them  was  that  they 
were  under  denominational  auspices  and  included  religious  instruction. 
The  other  motive  that  promoted  higher  education  was  the  desire  for  a 
trained  clergy.  Harvard  College,  tlie  first  of  American  colleges,  was 
founded  as  such  a  training  school.  In  time  the  colleges  broadened  out 
into  schools  for  general  culture,  but  for  some  time  they  were  little  more 
than  divinity  schools.  One  reason  for  the  establishment  of  academies 
was  because  the  colleges  were  narrow  in  their  scope,  and  a  more  prac- 
tical training  was  thought  desirable  for  the  young  people. 

With  the  progress  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  colleges  felt  the  cur- 
rents of  thought  that  flowed  from  the  universities  of  the  Old  World. 
Some  of  the  American  schools  were  ambitious  enough  to  become 
universities,  and  with  the  advent  of  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences 
and  modern  language  and  philosophy,  the  professional  character  of 
the  earlier  colleges  ceased,  and  theology  found  its  place  in  purely 
professional  schools.  Even  the  theological  schools  came  to  feel  the 
impact  of  modern  thought,  and  enlarged  the  sphere  of  their  instruction 
and  broadened  the  ideas  of  those  who  came  to  them  for  ministerial 
training. 

Note  7.  College  Christianity.  The  type  of  Cliristianity  to  be  found 
in  the  colleges  is  not  the  same  as  that  in  the  churches,  and  therefore 
there  has  been  a  tendency  for  the  college  and  the  church  to  part  com- 
pany. The  relation  of  college  Christianity  to  the  conventional  type 
is  maintained  by  means  of  daily  religious  worship  in  the  college  chapel, 
and  frequent  addresses  by  eminent  divines.  A  medium  of  communi- 
cation with  the  outside  Christian  agencies  is  kept  up  through  the  college 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  But  the  college  interprets  its 
Christianity  in  different  terms.  It  must  be  a  religion  of  reality  first  of 
all.  Theological  speculation  does  not  interest  the  average  college  man, 
and  mysticism  has  difficulties  for  him;  but  a  Christianity  in  terms  of 
life  appeals  to  him,  and  he  seeks  a  basis  for  it  in  a  science  and  philoso- 
phy that  he  can  understand.  His  gospel  is  one  which  teaches  a  love 
for  truth,  for  liberty,  and  for  brotherhood ;  but  not  for  these  as  abstract 
ideals,  but  as  concrete  realities.  He  will  toil  in  the  gutter  to  lift  out 
the  drunkard,  or  work  with  the  settlement  forces  in  tlieir  clubs,  or  join 
indifferently  with  the  Salvation  Army  or  the  Socialists  in  their  practical 
efforts,  if  they  are  at  the  moment  living  out  his  ideals.  His  interests 
are  with  the  people  who  walk  this  earth,  while  the  interests  of  the 
churches  are  primarily  unworldly,  or,  as  far  as  they  pertain  to  social 
affairs,  institutional.  When  he  gets  out  of  college  halls  into  the  larger 
social  life  he  settles  down  in  the  traces,  but  his  ideas  are  broader  than 


Foriy-nine  Christianity  in  Education  271 

those  of  the  man  who  has  not  had  the  training,  and  his  Christianity 
remains  of  a  more  liberal  type. 

Note  8.  The  Christian  Press.  As  Christian  education  was  run  in 
the  denominational  mould  in  the  nineteenth  century  until  it  broadened 
out  into  unconventional  channels,  so  Christian  iliinkers  gave  expres- 
sion to  their  opinions  in  denominational  newspapers  and  reviews  and 
in  books  that  were  issued  by  denominational  publishing  houses.  The 
stamp  of  the  denomination  was  put  upon  the  output  of  the  minds  of 
its  members.  The  religious  press  had  great  influence  with  its  own 
constituents,  but  it  was  not  a  liberalizing  influence.  The  expansion  of 
ideas  of  Christians  in  more  recent  years  has  come  through  a  freer 
expression  of  Christian  thought  in  undenominational  and  secular  peri- 
odicals, and  in  the  numerous  books  on  rehgious  subjects  that  are  pub- 
lished through  a  non-subsidized  publishing  house.  The  later  nineteenth 
century  marks  an  important  change  in  Christian  thought,  that  has 
been  greatly  aided  by  an  untrammeled  press. 

Note  9.  The  Religious  vs.  the  Secular.  The  most  profound  change 
that  has  come  over  Christianity  in  the  expansion  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is  the  revolution  of  thought  regarding  its  relation  to  the  life 
of  the  world.  A  hundred  years  ago  there  was  a  great  gulf  fixed  be- 
tween the  religious  and  the  secular.  The  world  was  very  sinful;  the 
average  man  was  common  and  unclean.  It  was  the  task  of  Christianity 
to  woo  men  from  the  secular  to  the  religious  attitude  of  mind  and  con- 
duct. A  broader  education  has  led  thoughtful  Christians  to  see  that 
the  religious  sphere  is  involved  with  the  secular,  and  that  part  of  the 
task  of  Christianity  is  to  sweeten  and  purify  commonplace  duties,  and 
to  brighten  the  every  day  life  of  humankind,  while  at  the  same  time 
religion  keeps  as  its  prime  function  the  task  of  interpreting  God  to  man 
and  revealing  the  reality  of  a  future  life. 


Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Last  Lesson. 

1.  Who  set  an  example  of  a  practical  ministry  in  rural  France? 

2.  What  methods  did  he  use? 

3.  Why  is  rural  betterment  important? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 

1.  In  what  two  ways  was  there  an  expansion  of  Christianity  in  the 
nineteenth  century? 


272  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  Leaton 

2.  Name  some  of  the  educational  experiments  of  the  pas*. 

3.  How  did  Robert  Raikes  become  famous? 

4.  What  improvements  in  method  took  place  in  America': 

5.  What  must  be  said  as  to  the  net  result  of  Sunday  school  teaching? 

6.  What  motives  led  to  the  planting  of  academies  and  colleges? 

7.  What  was  the  course  of  their  development? 

8.  Explain  how  college  Christianity  differs  from  that  of  the  churches. 

9.  What  has  been  the  influence  of  the  Christian  press? 

10.  Describe  the  changing  ideas  about  the  religious  and  the  secular. 

Reading  References. 

(1)  Cope:  The  Modern  Sunday  School  in  Principle  and  Practice, 
chs.  2,  3.  (2)  Article  on  Schools  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  11th 
edition.  (S)  Cooper:  College  Men  and  ilie  Bible.  (Ji)  Peabody:  The 
Religion  of  an  Educated  Man. 


^'^'^  The  Old  Faith  and  the  New  Learning  27S 

Lesson  50.    THE  OLD  FAITH  AND  THE  NEW  LEARNING.    The 
Place  of  Evolution  in  Modem  Christianity. 

Sources.- — The  writings  of  Darwin  and  Spencer;  reports  of  scientific  investi- 
gations; controversies  of  scientists  and  theologians;  recent  writings  on  theology 
and  the  Bible. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  meaning 
of  evolution;  (6)  its  relation  to  religion;  (c)  how  it  has  affected  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible  and  Christian  history;  {d)  the  attitude  of  the  church  towards 
the  new  idea. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion:  Can  the  facts  dis- 
closed by  natural  science  ever  be  really  hostile  to  religious  truth.''     Why? 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  Complete  the  summary  of  the  last  lesson.  (6) 
Write  a  review  exercise  of  Christian  history  in  not  less  than  three  hundred 
words,  showing  how  the  ideas  and  forms  characteristic  of  Christianity  in  the 
different  ages  have  grown  out  of  those  which  preceded,  (c)  Write  in  the  note- 
book a  definition  of  evolution. 

Note  1.  Getting  Adjusted.  When  Jesus  in  His  early  ministry 
climbed  one  day  the  Horns  of  Hattin  and  seated  Himself  to  talk  in 
leisurely  fashion  with  His  disciples  about  religious  things,  the  question 
came  up  whether  He  could  square  His  teachings  with  the  law  of  Judaism. 
His  reply  was  in  terms  of  evolution:  "  Think  not  that  I  came  to  destroy 
the  law  or  the  prophets;  I  came  not  to  destroy,  but  to  fulfil."  Not 
infrequently  since  then  the  Christian  church  has  asked  the  scientist 
and  the  pliilosopher  whether  he  could  meet  the  tests  of  orthodoxy  with 
his  new  teachings.  Such  a  challenge  has  sometimes  provoked  discus- 
sion and  even  persecution,  but  out  of  the  melee  has  come  a  readjust- 
ment of  ideas,  and  the  old  faith  and  the  new  learning  have  had  to  find 
a  way  to  jog  on  side  by  side.  Several  striking  revolutions  in  scientific 
thought  have  occurred  in  the  last  three  hundred  years.  Copernicus 
declared,  against  the  seeming  evidence  of  the  Bible  and  the  teaching 
of  the  church,  that  the  sun  and  not  the  earth  is  the  center  of  the  solar 
system.  Newton  proclaimed  a  universal  law  of  gravitation  that  seemed 
to  destroy  the  possibility  of  miracle.  The  geologists  discovered  that 
the  earth  was  millions  of  years  in  the  making,  and  they  discredited  the 
historical  character  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.  The  anthropolo- 
gists decided  that  there  was  good  evidence  that  man  has  existed  for 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years,  thus  annihilating  all  accepted  schemes 
of  reckoning  historic  time.  Finally  Darwin  worked  out  from  abundant 
evidence  a  theory  of  evolution  that  seemed  to  strike  at  the  very  roots 
of  revealed  religion,  and  the  faith  of  many  a  Christian  reeled  under 
the  attack.  Nevertheless  the  foundations  of  faith  stand  secure,  though 
the  expressions  of  faith  have  changed  their  terms,  as  men  have  learned 
to  adjust  their  theories  to  the  new  interpretations. 


274  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 

Note  2.  Some  Definitions.  It  helps  in  the  adjustment  to  define 
terms.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  religion  means  a  relationship  of 
the  individual  to  God  and  his  fellows  determined  by  experience,  and 
interpreted  by  creeds,  organizations,  and  forms  of  worship;  that  these 
forms  can  change  without  destroying  the  relationships;  and  that  the 
important  thing  is  to  make  certain  that  the  relationships  are  rightly 
adjusted.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  science  stands  for  the  organized 
body  of  knowledge  that  comes  from  old  experiences,  and  helps  to  inter- 
pret new  experiences;  that  it  has  helped  in  the  past  to  clear  up  many 
difficulties;  that  in  the  present  it  is  teaching  us  about  the  process  of 
life  into  which  are  woven  so  many  rich  experiences.  It  is  very  neces- 
sary to  remember  that  the  latest  great  scientific  discovery — that  of 
evolution — means  simply  that  a  theory  has  been  worked  out,  which 
seems  to  be  well  founded,  that  the  method  by  which  our  relationships 
are  improved  and  our  experiences  interpreted,  is  through  a  gradual 
development  of  the  forces  that  are  within  us.  This  does  not  mean 
that  God  is  left  out.  The  divine  is  back  of  and  resident  in  the  forces 
that  make  for  our  progress.  But  the  wonderful  truth  seems  to  be  that 
all  that  belongs  to  us — our  bodies,  the  world  in  which  we  live,  the 
society  in  which  we  move,  the  ideas  that  we  think,  even  the  religion 
in  which  we  believe, — ^have  been  wrought  out  by  a  long,  slow  process 
of  development,  and  that  the  force  that  has  brought  it  to  pass  is 
God,  in  whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being. 

Note  3.  The  Theory  of  Evolution  a  Landmark  in  Christian  His- 
tory. Such  a  discovery  as  this  was  one  of  the  most  profound  discover- 
ies in  history.  It  meant  a  rearrangement  of  ideas  about  so  many 
things.  It  had  been  hinted  at  ages  ago  by  Aristotle  and  Lucretius. 
It  had  been  talked  about  scientifically  by  Laplace  and  Lamarck,  It 
became  a  modern  sensation  when  Charles  Darwin  tried  to  show  that 
all  forms  of  animal  life  are  akin  to  each  other,  that  the  origin  of  sepa- 
rate species  came  about  by  natural  variations  from  a  normal  type,  and 
that  the  maintenance  of  animal  life  was  possible  only  by  constant 
struggle  and  the  destruction  of  the  unfit.  All  this  seemed  so  contrary 
to  what  Christianity  had  taught  about  the  creation  of  life,  and  about 
love  and  not  strife  as  a  guiding  principle  in  fife.  Then  the  philosopher, 
Herbert  Spencer,  attempted  to  fit  the  key  of  evolution  into  all  the  doors 
of  knowledge,  and  by  this  master  key  to  unlock  all  the  mysteries  of 
science,  until  history,  philosophy,  theology,  and  the  Bible  were  all 
undergoing  new  interpretation.  The  result  has  been  an  entirely  new 
outlook  upon  the  whole  field  of  rehgious  life  and  history.  Most  of 
this  has  happened  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  it  is  one  of  the  greatest 


^^^  The  Old  Faith  and  the  New  Learning  275 

revolutions  of  thought  that  religion  has  encountered  since  Jesus  lived 
among  men. 

Note  4.  The  Meaning  of  the  New  Outlook.  The  idea  of  evolution 
has  greatly  broadened  Christianity.  It  therefore  fills  a  large  place  in 
the  story  of  the  nineteenth  century  expansion  of  Christianity.  It  does 
not  mean  that  the  old  faith  in  God  has  been  lost,  but  it  means  that 
God  works  differently  from  the  way  in  which  men  formerly  supposed 
He  worked.  It  does  not  mean  that  the  Bible  has  ceased  to  be  of  use, 
but  it  means  that  it  is  to  be  read  as  a  record  of  human  experience  more 
than  as  a  law-book  prepared  in  heaven.  It  does  not  mean  that  religion 
is  a  worn-out  myth,  but  it  means  that  religion  is  a  vital  part  of  all  life, 
necessary  for  this  world  as  well  as  for  the  world  that  is  to  come.  It 
does  not  mean  that  faith  is  to  be  thrown  away  as  unscientific,  or  that 
immortahty  is  no  longer  to  be  thought  of,  or  that  love  is  dead.  A  true 
understanding  of  evolution  makes  faith  the  forerunner  of  every  scien- 
tific discovery,  gives  a  new  hope  for  a  fuller  life  in  the  beyond,  and 
teaches  a  struggle  for  the  life  of  others  that  wins  out  over  those  who 
struggle  for  their  own  selfish  ends.  The  new  learning  has  but  illumined 
and  ennobled  the  old  faith.  It  is  hke  the  sun  when  it  tips  the  shadowy 
mountain  peaks  with  light,  and  disperses  the  long  accumulated  clouds. 

Note  5.  Evolution  and  the  Bible.  The  evolutionary  conception  has 
made  the  Bible  a  new  book.  It  contains  the  story  of  a  race  with  all 
the  hmitations  of  its  primitive  ideas  struggling  to  find  for  itself  a  place 
in  the  world,  and  discovering  through  the  aid  of  its  prophets  and  priests 
that  it  had  a  mission  to  interpret  God  to  the  world.  According  to  the 
newer  thought  Jehovah  and  Israel  were  not  at  odds  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment period,  but  the  people  were  trying  to  understand  His  nature, 
which  was  the  same  then  as  now.  Jesus  had  no  desire  to  break  with 
Judaism  in  the  New  Testament  period,  but  to  show  how  the  Jews  should 
find  their  duty  fulfilled  in  living  up  to  the  light  they  had  and  in  passing 
it  on  to  others.  Increasingly  through  the  pages  of  the  Bible  there 
appears  a  development  of  moral  ideas,  until  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
there  are  raised  moral  standards  that  surpass  those  of  all  other  teachers 
of  mankind.  The  Bible  remains  therefore  an  inspiration  to  all  people 
in  all  ages  because  it  reveals  the  real  experiences  of  real  human  beings, 
and  at  the  same  time  points  out  and  stimulates  to  higher  ideals. 

Note  6.  Evolution  and  Christian  History.  Before  the  period  of 
evolution  made  its  contribution  to  history,  it  was  customary  to  look 
upon  the  human  story  as  a  series  of  striking  events,  like  stereopticon 
pictures  thrown  upon  a  screen.     There  was  little  thought  of  connec- 


276  LandmarJcs  in  Christian  History  ^^"'^^ 

tions  or  of  the  development  of  certain  movements  that  had  their  natural 
outcome  in  results  that  could  have  been  reasonably  anticipated.  Now 
all  history  is  changed,  and  the  change  is  illustrated  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  story  of  Christianity.  It  is  seen  now  that  the  Christianity 
that  we  own  today  is  not  the  simple  faith  of  the  first  disciples.  It  has 
received  the  contributions  of  thinkers  who  were  trained  in  the  Greek 
schools,  of  practical  men  of  affairs  who  used  Roman  methods  in  the 
organization  of  an  efiicient  church,  of  independent  Germans  who  could 
not  always  be  patient  with  foreign  authority  in  rehgion,  of  modern 
men  of  scientific  temper  who  wanted  to  revise  many  of  the  ideas  of  the 
past,  and  out  of  all  these  influences  has  come  the  Christianity  of  the 
twentieth  century.  On  this  theory  every  age  has  its  lessons  to  learn 
and  its  vision  of  truth  to  give,  and  every  individual  either  finds  his 
place  in  the  established  order  and  does  his  duty  along  conventional 
lines,  or  he  resents  authority  and  uniformity,  and  insists  on  blazing 
new  trails  for  himself.  Christian  thought  and  Christian  institutions 
alike  show  traces  of  growth  through  the  labor  of  individual  minds  and 
the  struggles  of  contending  groups.  This  conception  encourages  the 
student  to  hope  for  a  better  future  because  the  imperfect  is  continually 
growing  nearer  to  the  perfect  ideal. 

Note  7.  Evolution  and  Social  Service.  The  old  idea  of  religion 
was  that  it  was  mainly  a  personal  affair  between  a  man  and  God ;  that 
it  had  its  birth  in  heaven  and  was  httle  concerned  with  earth.  In  the 
early  presentation  of  the  evolutionary  idea,  Darwin  seemed  to  make 
science  teach  that  one's  existence  anywhere  depends  on  the  strength 
of  his  push  against  other  men  in  behalf  of  his  own  rights.  Religion 
and  evolutionary  science  have  been  drawing  together.  The  later 
teaching  of  both  is  that  the  secret  of  life  anywhere  lies  in  a  willingness 
to  surrender  selfish  interests  for  a  greater  good,  the  welfare  of  others. 
The  competition  taught  by  Darwin  and  the  co-operation  taught  by 
Jesus  must  find  a  way  to  exist  together.  There  must  be  a  striving, 
but  it  must  be  a  striving  for  efficiency  of  service.  In  this  way  there 
comes  about  an  evolution  that  is  directed  by  the  conscious  purpose  of 
noble  men  and  women,  and  that  will  far  outrun  in  its  achievements 
the  slow  processes  of  the  past,  because  God  and  man  are  working 
together  for  one  end. 

Note  8.  The  Attitude  of  the  Church  to  Science.  Christian  history 
shows  that  the  spirit  which  vitalizes  Christianity  helps  forward  meas- 
ures of  progress  which  the  church  as  a  conservative  institution  does 
not  always  favor.  It  has  been  so  in  the  case  of  the  theory  of  evolution. 
Such  a  theory  seemed  to  threaten  so  much  that  the  church  held  dear. 


''^'^  The  Old  Faith  and  the  New  Learning  277 

that,  organized  Christianity  attacked  it  as  an  enemy.  It  has  opposed 
in  a  similar  way  other  great  discoveries  of  science.  The  church  has 
yet  to  learn  to  adapt  itself  fast  enough  to  the  changes  of  thought  and 
method  that  are  sure  to  be  demanded  as  mankind  moves  out  of  its 
lesser  ranges  up  to  its  higher  plateaus.  But  the  attitude  of  the  church 
cannot  long  be  hostile  to  teachings  that  reveal  God  as  greater  and  nobler 
than  He  used  to  seem.  Evolution  is  finding  its  place  as  an  inspiring 
idea  to  those  who  are  seeking  to  know  Him  whom  to  know  aright  is 
life  eternal. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  How  has  education  been  affected  by  Christianity? 

2.  Who  made  the  Sunday  school  systematic  and  popular? 

3.  What  is  the  emphasis  of  college  Christianity? 

4.  What  has  been  the  task  of  the  Christian  press? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  was  the  attitude  of  Jesus  towards  orthodoxy  in  religion? 


2.  Name  some  of  the  revolutionary  ideas  of  natural  science. 

3.  Define  religion,  science,  evolution. 

4.  What  did  Darwin  and  Spencer  try  to  show  ? 

5.  Explain  the  meaning  of  evolution  in  its  relation  to  religion. 

6.  How  has  the  evolutionary  idea  affected  the  Bible? 

7.  How  has  evolution  modified  Christian  history? 


278  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 

8.  How  does  the  evolutionary  thought  encourage  social  service? 

9.  How  has  the  church  felt  towards  the  new  influences? 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  evolution  in  personal  religion? 


Reading  References. 

(1)  Ellwood :  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  ch.  2.  (2)  Chad- 
wick:  Evolution  as  related  to  Religious  Thought,  a  chapter  in  Evolution, 
a  book  consisting  of  addresses  before  the  Brooklyn  Ethical  Association. 
(S)  Maclaurin:  Science  and  Religion:  the  End  of  the  Battle  in  the  Out- 
look, September  9,  1911. 


Lesson  51.    CHRISTIANITY  AND  NATIONAL  PROBLEMS.    The 

Christian  Spirit  in  Government  and  Business. 

Sources. — Matt.  25:14-29;  government  reports;  recent  periodical  literature; 
Studies  in  the  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom;  Rauschenbusch's  Christianity  and  the 
Social  Crisis. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  over  the  summary  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson,  noting  especially:  (a)  the  need  of 
political  reform;  (6)  the  spirit  of  business;  (c)  the  co-operative  experiment  in 
Great  Britain;  {d)  the  purposes  of  the  socialists;  (e)  the  necessity  of  individual 
morality. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion  in  class:  How  can 
the  public  be  educated  so  as  to  enforce  the  Christian  spirit  in  government  and 
business? 

4.  The  following  exercises  are  suggested  for  the  note-book:  (a)  See  that  the 
summary  of  the  last  lesson  is  made  complete.  (6)  Make  a  Ust  of  government 
offices;  in  a  parallel  column  note  some  of  the  evils  of  past  politics;  and  in  a  third 
column  suggest  improvements,  (c)  Write  a  brief  sketch  of  socialism  in  Europe, 
(cf.  especially  a  series  of  articles  on  Socialism  in  World's  Work,  1912.) 

Vote  I.  "  I  am  the  State."  Proud  in  his  achievements  as  a  suc- 
tressful  king,  Louis  XIV  of  France  exclaimed  in  a  moment  of  enthusiasm, 
**  I  am  the  State."  In  all  France  his  will  was  law.  He  ruled  for  his 
own  pleasure  and  to  suit  his  own  ambition,  not  to  secure  the  best 
interests  of  his  people.     Napoleon,  in  a  similar  spirit,  cared  nothing 


Fifty-<me  Christianity  and  National  Problems  279 

for  the  lives  of  a  million  soldiers,  if  he  might  gain  the  overlordship  of 
half  of  Europe.  King  James  I  of  England  maintained  that  he  ruled 
his  realm  by  divine  right,  and  not  by  the  grace  of  the  people.  The 
emperors  of  Rome  were  even  deified  as  the  incarnation  of  supreme 
authority.  The  imperial  idea  has  been  always  that  of  irresponsible 
authority. 

That  idea  is  giving  way  in  modern  times  to  the  idea  of  a  monarch's 
duty  to  the  people  over  whom  he  bears  rule.  Even  before  the  French 
Revolution  Joseph  II  of  Austria  attempted  reforms  on  his  own  initi- 
ative because  of  this  conviction.  When  Prince  Albert  married  Queen 
Victoria  of  England  he  interested  himself  in  the  affairs  of  the  people 
of  England,  and  as  long  as  he  lived  he  devoted  himself  assiduously 
to  their  concerns.  In  popular  governments,  like  that  of  the  United 
States,  the  people  are  supposed  to  exercise  authority.  Actually  they 
have  been  controlled  by  party  machines  manipulated  by  unscrupulous 
bosses  for  the  sake  of  party  spoils.  In  recent  years  a  wave  of  moral 
reform  has  been  purifying  politics,  and  it  is  another  indication  that 
the  spirit  of  righteousness  that  is  Christian  is  expanding. 

Note  2.  Political  Reform.  Abraham  Lincoln  had  set  an  example 
of  disinterested  service  that  deserved  imitation,  but  American  politics 
after  him  degenerated  into  a  scramble  for  office.  People  forgot  that 
pubhc  office  was  a  public  trust,  until  civil  service  reform  was  under- 
taken by  President  Grant  in  the  appointment  of  a  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission, and  later  Presidents  enlarged  the  scope  of  the  rule  that  only 
those  who  were  properly  qualified  should  receive  appointment  to 
office.  In  the  states  of  the  American  Union  and  in  local  communities 
there  was  similar  need  of  reform.  The  spirit  of  self-aggrandizement 
was  characteristic  of  the  American  people.  It  appeared  in  all  depart- 
ments of  life — in  office-seeking,  in  the  scramble  for  wealth  at  the  cost 
of  honesty  in  business,  in  pushing  to  the  front  for  recognition  in  polite 
society.  Reform  in  any  of  these  departments  was  contingent  upon 
higher  ideals,  and  these  could  come  only  as  there  should  be  a  revival 
of  the  private  and  public  virtues  that  were  characteristic  in  larger  meas- 
ure of  the  days  of  the  fathers,  and  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  on 
delinquents.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  moral  revival,  espe- 
cially in  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  spirit  into  government  and 
business.  Bossism  has  been  losing  its  grip  on  political  circles.  Efficient 
administration  has  been  taking  the  place  of  long-intrenched  systems 
of  graft.  Everywhere  there  is  a  new  sense  of  responsibility  to  the 
whole  of  society. 

Note  3.    The  Sphere  of  Government.    With  ih^  awakemng  of  the 


280  Landmarks  in  Chridian  History  ^^^^ 

new  consciousness  of  social  responsibility,  there  has  been  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  fact  that  the  right  kind  of  government  is  under  obligation 
to  do  more  than  secure  protection  to  citizens  from  foreign  aggression, 
and  to  maintain  the  routine  functions  of  administration  at  home.  The 
nation  must  educate  its  youth,  must  consider  the  interests  of  all  classes 
in  their  business  and  varied  occupations,  and  must  take  care  of  the  immi- 
grants that  they  may  become  Americanized.  State  and  municipal 
governments  must  provide  more  minute  regulations  for  the  welfare  of 
all  classes.  Such  modern  matters  as  the  control  of  transportation,  the 
use  of  streams  and  public  highways,  the  building  of  houses  and  public 
buildings,  the  management  of  public  utilities,  the  public  health,  are 
given  attention,  and  the  needed  legislation  is  voted  by  state  assemblies 
and  municipal  councils.  New  methods  are  introduced  to  make  more 
efficient  all  measures  of  oversight.  Persons  are  appointed  to  office 
who  are  recognized  as  leaders  in  social  reforms  for  the  good  of  all. 

Note  4.  Competition  in  Business.  When  Charles  Darwin  declared 
that  the  law  of  progress  in  nature  was  through  a  competitive  struggle, 
he  might  have  found  abundant  proof  in  the  realm  of  business.  Espe- 
cially in  the  United  States  did  the  spirit  of  competition  take  control 
from  the  day  when  the  first  settlers  began  to  match  themselves  against 
the  forces  of  nature.  The  first  struggle  was  against  those  forces,  but 
this  was  soon  followed  by  a  struggle  between  men  to  get  the  Hon's 
share  of  profits  to  be  made  in  the  appropriation  of  the  immense  re- 
sources of  forests,  mines,  and  prairies.  Accumulation  of  wealth  went 
forward  with  giant  strides.  The  lines  of  railway  multiplied.  The 
contributions  of  industry  to  the  growth  of  cities  resulted  in  an  unpar- 
alleled gain  of  urban  population.  Commerce  and  finance  were  organ- 
ized in  great  centers  like  London  and  New  York.  Nerves  were  strained 
in  the  race  for  business  success.  Pulses  beat  ever  faster  in  the  excite- 
ment of  the  struggle.  All  industry  was  geared  continually  to  a  more 
rapid  pace.  There  was  no  time  to  tliink  of  those  who  fell  by  the  way. 
Business  was  business;  failure  was  deep  disgrace;  success  must  be 
obtained  at  any  cost. 

Note  5.  The  Higher  Law.  Then  came  the  moral  awakening  that 
made  itself  felt  in  government.  In  the  merciless  struggle  to  excel, 
even  at  a  pace  that  kills,  the  few  had  gained  enormous  wealth  and  power, 
but  the  many  were  falling  behind.  Success  was  being  attained  at  the 
cost  of  the  nation's  moral  strength  and  physical  health.  Class  struggle 
menaced  the  good  fortunes  of  those  who  fattened  on  others'  toil.  The 
mutterings  of  bitter  hate  threatened  to  destroy  the  system  that  they 
had  reared.     Business  had  accepted  the  law  of  competition  that  brought 


Fifty-one  Christianity  and  National  Problems  281 

gain  to  a  few;  it  had  now  to  learn  that  there  was  a  higher  law  that 
demanded  co-operation  for  the  good  of  all. 

Co-operation  had  been  tried  more  than  once  in  the  organization  of 
groups  to  attempt  living  on  a  communistic  basis.  It  had  been  tried 
as  a  method  of  production  of  goods.  Almost  always  it  had  failed.  It 
was  still  an  open  question  whether  it  might  not  be  practical  in  solving 
the  problem  of  distribution  of  goods.  The  argument  in  favor  of  com- 
petition in  business  was  that  it  proved  an  incentive  to  invention  and 
industry,  and  abundant  goods  were  produced.  The  principle  broke 
down  when  it  came  to  making  a  fair  distribution  of  goods. 

Note  6.  British  Co-operation.  A  successful  co-operative  movement 
originated  in  England  in  the  organization  of  twenty-eight  Rochdale 
weavers  in  the  year  1844.  They  formulated  a  plan  to  do  away  with 
the  necessity  of  those  middlemen  who  were  making  profits  out  of  the 
people,  by  co-operating  in  the  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in 
large  quantities  directly  from  the  producers.  They  were  successful,  and 
others  adopted  the  same  plan.  The  co-operators  appointed  their  own 
agents,  and  so  saved  the  heavy  expenses  of  management.  As  far  as  possi- 
ble they  shared  all  purchases  at  cost,  and  whatever  extra  receipts  accumu- 
lated were  distributed  among  those  who  belonged  to  the  co-operative 
association.  The  co-operative  idea  has  extended  to  other  English- 
speaking  lands,  and  in  various  forms,  like  co-operative  banks,  insurance 
companies,  and  building  associations,  is  becoming  increasingly  popular. 

Note  7.  Socialism.  There  are  not  a  few  who  have  come  to  believe 
that  enforced  co-operation  is  the  only  possible  arrangement  of  social 
life  and  industry  that  will  bring  comfort  and  happiness  to  the  largest 
number.  In  the  class  struggle  of  the  past  the  large  majority  have 
suffered  from  the  oppression  of  the  few.  Now  the  class  struggle  must 
go  on  till  the  many,  combining,  have  mastered  the  few.  Then  the 
people  shall  enjoy  the  fruits  of  industry.  This  hope  of  the  sociahsts 
is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  rewards  of  industry  belong  to  the  laborer; 
that  they  will  come  to  him  when  he  owns  the  tools  with  which  he  works; 
that  when  he  awakes  to  his  power  he  will  take  them  from  his  employer; 
and  that  then  the  masses  of  the  people  will  cease  to  suffer  from  poverty 
and  ill-rewarded  toil. 

This  modern  socialist  program  was  proposed  by  Karl  Marx  in  Europe 
at  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  has  been  adopted  by  some 
sane  reformers  as  a  hope  to  be  attained  in  time  by  an  evolutionary 
process.  It  has  formed  the  basis  of  political  organization  for  others 
who  hope  to  force  their  program  upon  national  parHaments.  It  has 
become  the  goal  of  revolutionists  who  plan  its  accomplishment  by  the 


282  Landmarks  in  Christian  History  ^""^ 

most  radical  measures  of  political  and  social  revolution.     In  recent 
years  socialists  have  gained  rapidly  in  number  and  in  strength. 

Note  8.  Socialism  and  Christianity.  The  Socialist  program  has 
attracted  many  who  believe  that  no  amount  of  individual  regeneration 
will  improve  the  social  order,  and  it  has  drawn  some  Christians  to  its 
support  because  they  are  persuaded  that  the  socialistc  method  of  col- 
lective ownership  and  regulated  distribution  of  economic  goods  is  the 
surest  way  to  establish  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  normal  sociahst 
expects  to  make  over  human  nature  by  carrying  out  an  economic  and 
pohtical  program.  The  normal  Christian  believes  that  the  grov/th  of 
individual  character  is  a  surer  basis  for  an  ideal  commonwealth  than 
an  improved  social  system,  and  for  him  the  secret  of  happiness  lies  less 
in  goods  than  in  the  good.  Socialism  can  be  permanently  successful 
only  as  it  becomes  Christian  in  spirit,  just  as  Christianity  cannot  make 
real  the  kingdom  of  God  until  it  utters  clearly  a  social  message  and 
proclaims  a  social  ideal. 

Note  9.  Individual  Morality.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
method  of  the  socialist,  it  remains  true  that  before  the  welfare  of  all 
can  be  attained  class  hatred  must  give  way  to  the  spirit  of  co-operation 
and  the  law  of  retaj'iation  to  the  law  of  brotherly  love.  Christian  history 
has  contributed  many  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  social  structure 
can  endure  only  by  the  maintenance  of  sterling  moral  qualities  in  the 
individuals  of  whom  it  is  composed.  The  social  uplift  of  man  depends 
upon  the  moral  uplift  of  men.  The  spirit  of  brotherliness  that  welcomes 
sacrifice  and  loss  for  another's  good  is  the  only  dynamic  that  can  trans- 
form a  social  order  where  ruthless  competition  rules  into  a  system 
where  co-operative  endeavor  makes  all  burdens  light.  Bear  ye  one 
another's  burdens,  and  so  fulfil  the  law  of  Christ,  and  the  law  of  the 
highest  social  life. 

Questions  on  the  Summary  of  the  Preceding  Lesson. 

1.  What  is  the  theory  of  evolution? 

2.  What  effects  has  it  produced? 

3.  Is  evolution  contrary  to  religion? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  Mention  illustrations  of  selfishness  in  government. 


2.  Show  how  there  was  need  of  reform  in  the  United  States. 


^'^'^•''''  The  World  at  Peace  S8g 

3.  What  are  the  social  duties  of  government? 

4.  How  was  the  law  of  struggle  illustrated  in  American  business? 

5.  What  were  the  results  of  competition? 

6.  How  was  co-operation  tried  in  Great  Britain? 

7.  What  is  the  theory  of  the  socialists? 

8.  What  three  kinds  of  socialists  are  there? 

9.  Compare  the  method  of  socialism  and  the  method  of  Christianity. 

10.  What  is  after  all  the  only  sure  remedy  for  social  ills? 

Reading  References. 
(1)  Peabody:  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question^  ch.  4.     (2)  Ross: 
Sin   and   Society.     (3)  Allen:    America's  Awakening.     {4)  White:  A 
Certain  Rich  Man. 


Lesson  52.    THE   WORLD  AT   PEACE.     Christianity  the  Teacher 
of  World  Brotherhood. 

Sources. — Matthew  5:  39-41;  ecclesiastical  decrees,  national  treaties,  and 
diplomatic  correspondence;  records  of  peace  societies;  sermons  and  addresses; 
the  rescript  of  the  Czar  of  Russia  calling  the  Hague  Conference. 

Suggestions  for  Study. — 1.  Read  the  summaries  of  recent  lessons  in  prepara- 
tion for  class  review,  and  end  with  the  final  summary. 


284  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


%.  Read  the  story  of  the  present  lesson.  Notice  especially:  (a)  the  Truce 
of  God;  (6)  diplomacy  and  arbitration;  (c)  modern  peace  movements;  {d)  the 
Hague  Conferences;  {e)  the  final  review. 

3.  Think  over  the  following  topic  for  special  discussion  in  class :  What  effect 
would  the  cessation  of  war  have  upon  the  future  history  of  Europe.' 

4.  Note-book  work:  (a)  See  that  all  summaries  are  written  in  fuU.  (6) 
Make  a  list  of  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  in  the  cause  of  peace,  (c)  Make 
three  tables  to  show  (1)  What  England  spends  annually  on  army'and  navy, 
{2)  what  she  spends  for  education  and  other  social  interests,  {S)  how  the  money 
might  be  spent  for  social  welfare,  {d)  Make  a  list  of  ten  of  the  most  important 
landmarks  in  the  whole  history  of  Christianity. 

Note  1.  The  Truce  of  God.  "  You  think  that  war  is  all  glory," 
said  Sherman,  the  successful  American  general  in  the  Civil  War,  "  I  tell 
you  it  is  all  hell."  The  artist  has  idealized  the  scenes  of  the  battlefield; 
the  modern  realist  paints  the  horrible  carnage  as  it  really  is.  The 
spirit  of  twentieth  century  Christianity  is  increasingly  opposed  to  war, 
but  the  story  of  the  growth  of  sentiment  against  it  is  a  long  one. 

When  Christianity  had  been  in  the  world  a  thousand  years,  it  was 
still  the  custom  to  resort  to  arms  for  the  settlement  of  personal  disputes. 
Might  made  right.  But  Christianity  was  a  religion  of  peace,  and  the 
Roman  pope,  as  representative  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  used  his  influence 
to  check  personal  combat.  He  was  so  far  successful  that  it  became  a 
policy  of  the  medieval  church  to  adopt  the  social  regulation  known  as 
the  truce  of  God  which  made  it  improper  to  wage  war  during  the  last 
part  of  the  week  or  on  holy  days.  Gradually  private  warfare,  including 
the  practice  of  duelling,  came  to  an  end  in  civilized  countries. 

Note  2.  International  Disputes.  If  it  was  possible  to  bring  about 
a  peaceful  solution  of  personal  and  local  difficulties  by  ecclesiastical 
intervention,  and  later  by  national  legislatures  and  courts,  there  was  no 
fundamental  reason  why  nations  should  not  find  a  way  to  settle  their 
differences  without  the  arbitrament  of  the  sword.  It  became  possible 
to  regulate  warfare  by  the  general  adoption  of  principles  of  international 
law,  and  by  the  definite  action  of  international  congresses  on  specific 
details.  Then  attention  was  turned  to  other  methods  of  settlement. 
Diplomacy  was  the  first  method  employed.  Representatives  of  two 
or  more  nations  found  it  possible  in  friendly  conference  to  adjust 
differences  without  war.  It  became  the  custom  for  ambassadors  to 
reside  permanently  at  national  capitals,  and  to  prevent  international 
irritation.  When  diplomacy  was  unable  to  reach  a  peaceful  solution, 
it  was  found  practicable  to  submit  the  difficulty  to  a  third  party  for 
arbitration.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  introduced  that  plan 
in  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  other  nations  followed 
their  example.  During  the  nineteenth  century  over  three  hundred 
and  fifty  international  difficulties  were  settled  in  that  way. 


^^■^^^-'"'^  The  World  at  'Peace  285 

Note  3.  The  Peace  Movement  in  History.  From  the  time  when 
Jesus  counselled  His  disciples  to  meekness,  and  declared  that  they  who 
take  the  sword  expose  themselves  to  perish  by  the  sword,  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  has  been  the  spirit  of  peace.  Groups  of  Christians,  hke 
the  Dutch  Mennonites  and  the  English  Quakers,  have  adopted  as  a 
fundamental  principle  that  no  possible  occasion  justifies  war.  Most 
men  have  thought  that  there  are  times  when  resistance  must  be  made 
effective,  but  the  Christian  Church  has  professed  the  principle  of  peace. 
Nevertheless  the  tread  of  soldiers  and  the  clash  of  arms  were  heard 
many  times  in  Christian  Europe  and  America  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  cost  of  armaments  increased.  Standing  armies  drew 
the  young  men  of  the  nations  from  productive  industry  in  field  ^nd 
shop.  Diplomacy  and  arbitration  were  winning  their  victories  of 
peace,  but  the  dread  and  the  deadliness  of  war  became  more  awful. 
Then  the  lovers  of  peace  began  to  organize.  One  after  another  Ameri- 
cans and  Europeans  formed  their  peace  societies.  In  1899  an  Inter- 
parliamentary Union  was  formed  to  embrace  members  of  present  or 
past  parliaments,  and  in  twelve  years  twenty-five  hundred  names  were 
enrolled.  The  Nobel  Institute  was  founded  to  reward  those  who  made 
conspicuous  contributions  to  the  cause  of  peace.  Steps  were  taken 
to  organize  and  endow  a  peace  school  in  Boston.  In  1911  Andrew 
Carnegie  created  a  peace  foundation  with  a  gift  of  over  eleven  million 
dollars,  and  the  President  of  the  United  States  was  made  honorary 
president  of  the  organization.  In  the  course  of  the  international  con- 
ference at  which  this  foundation  was  proposed  it  was  declared  that 
international  war  is  a  blot  on  civihzation. 

Note  4.  The  Hague  Tribunal.  Most  noteworthy  of  all  modern 
efforts  are  the  international  conferences  that  have  been  held  in  Europe, 
and  the  results  that  have  come  from  them.  In  the  year  1898  the  Czar 
of  Russia  sent  out  to  the  leading  nations  of  the  world  an  invitation  to 
appoint  delegates  to  meet  in  a  peace  conference.  The  result  was  the 
first  Hague  Conference.  In  a  Dutch  royal  palace,  known  as  the  House 
in  the  Wood,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  this 
international  body  met,  and  found  it  possible  to  arrange  for  a  perma- 
nent board  of  arbitration  to  which  nations  might  submit  their  difficul- 
ties. A  second  conference  was  held  in  1907.  These  deliberations 
made  possible  such  friendly  intervention  as  President  Roosevelt  was 
able  to  offer  to  Russia  and  Japan  in  the  war  of  1904-5,  the  establish- 
ment of  an  International  Prize  Court,  and  an  International  Tribunal 
which  in  1910  settled  the  long-standing  Newfoundland  fisheries  dispute 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 


Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Le$8on 


Note  5.  The  Spirit  of  Peace.  In  days  gone  by  Christianity  was 
able  to  mitigate  the  severities  of  war  by  checking  torture  and  preventing 
the  enslavement  of  captives.  In  more  recent  time  it  has  encouraged 
justice  in  industrial  relations  at  home  and  in  national  relations  abroad. 
It  has  in  the  last  century  emphasized  humanitarian  efforts  in  all  social 
relations.  It  has  humanized  the  people  at  home  while  it  has  carried 
the  gospel  of  good  will  by  means  of  its  missionary  enterprises  to  foreign 
lands.  It  has  met  with  objections.  It  has  not  been  able  to  attain  to 
its  ideals.  But  it  has  been  leavening  the  human  race  with  its  spirit. 
Travel  and  commerce  are  bringing  mutual  acquaintance  and  respect, 
and  creating  mutual  interests  that  war  destroys.  A  common  cause  is 
knitting  together  the  workers  of  every  nation  in  a  bond  that  makes 
them  a  power  for  peace.  Whether  or  not  socialism  is  approved  to-day, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  against  war.  The  example  of 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  in  their  successful  federation 
of  strong  and  semi-independent  states  has  made  real  the  ideal  of  one 
great  world-state. 

On  the  mountain  border  between  Chile  and  Argentina  stands  a  noble 
statue  of  the  Savior  who  came  to  save  men  from  the  evils  in  themselves. 
The  South  American  nations  had  fought  many  a  selfish  war  with  one 
another,  before  the  two  most  progressive  among  them  erected  the 
statue  &s  a  reminder  that  the  spirit  of  their  religion  was  the  spirit  of 
peace.  The  Christ  of  the  Andes  represents  the  ideal  of  world  brother- 
hood. It  is  the  gospel  that  the  first  Christian  missionary  went  forth 
to  preach.  It  is  the  gospel  of  the  Catholic  monk  and  the  Protestant 
pastor.  It  is  a  gospel  that  has  been  formulated  in  creeds  and  institu- 
tionalized in  organizations,  but  is  revealed  increasingly  in  human  lives. 
It  is  the  gospel  that  has  taken  form  in  all  kinds  of  wider  social  endeavor 
during  the  last  one  hundred  years.  It  is  the  gospel  that  will  be  the 
constitution  of  the  eternal  Kingdom  of  God. 

Note  6.  The  Ancient  Landmarks.  The  story  of  Christianity's 
past  is  finished.  Let  us  review  it  briefly.  The  facts  of  Christian  his- 
tory are  waymarks  along  the  path  of  the  triumphant  progress  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God.  Jesus  Christ  lived  a  life  among  men  that  incarnated 
human  ideals.  He  taught  principles  that  were  adapted  to  the  people 
of  His  own  day,  but  that  were  suitable  for  all  races  in  all  time.  With 
the  enthusiasm  of  pioneers  the  early  Christians  carried  His  message  to 
all  parts  of  the  ancient  world.  Those  who  received  it  associated  them- 
selves together  in  churches.  Leaders  of  thought  and  leaders  of  action 
came  forward  as  champions  of  the  new  religion.  The  Roman  empire 
persecuted  Christians,  but  could  not  destroy  Christianity.     By  the 


^*^'^-'""'  The  World  at  Peace  287 

power  of  its  principles  the  religion  of  the  peaceful  Christ  won  a  perma- 
nent victory  over  the  hostile  state.  By  a  strange  fortune  a  bishop  of 
the  Christian  church  at  last  sat  in  the  place  of  the  emperor  at  Rome. 
Meantime  the  Greek  mind  set  to  work  to  fashion  the  doctrine  of  the 
church  in  conference  and  council,  and  the  faith  became  crystallized 
in  the  creeds. 

Note  6.  When  Europe  Awoke.  Time  obscured  the  spiritual  faith  of 
primitive  days.  Dreams  of  power  swayed  the  conduct  of  the  Roman 
church.  The  authority  of  the  spirit  gave  way  to  the  authority  of  the 
priest  and  the  pope.  That  could  not  always  be.  Francis  the  friar 
preached  new  ideals  of  service  for  priest  and  layman  both.  Luther, 
the  monk  of  Saxony,  read  his  Bible  and  learned  there  a  better  way  to 
God  than  through  the  sacraments  of  the  church.  Other  reformers 
caught  visions  of  truth  that  pointed  the  way  to  freedom  and  hope  for 
all  men  alike.  Those  were  days  of  reUgious  revival  that  have  never 
been  forgotten.  Ever  since  then  the  old  church  of  Rome  and  the 
independent  churches  of  Protestantism  have  opposed  each  other  in  the 
interests  of  a  true  Christianity,  and  the  old  is  giving  place  to  the  new. 

Note  7.  Christianity  in  England  and  America.  The  most  proi- 
perous  and  progressive  nations  of  modern  times  have  been  England 
and  the  United  States.  In  rehgion  they  have  been  the  most  spiritual 
and  the  most  liberal.  The  English  Reformation  began  as  a  revolt  from 
the  papacy.  The  British  sovereigns  concluded  to  make  England 
nominally  Protestant,  but  they  were  not  progressive  enough  for  many 
Englishmen.  The  Puritans  chafed  at  the  old  ritual;  the  Separatists 
withdrew  and  organized  their  own  churches.  Persecuted  Congrega- 
tionalists  and  Baptists  found  homes  in  the  New  World,  and  there  laid 
the  foundations  of  religious  denominations  that  have  come  to  stand  for 
liberty,  for  fellowship,  and  for  efficiency.  The  Methodists  spiritualized 
the  religion  of  the  working  people  of  England,  and  found  their  way  to 
America,  to  reinforce  the  evangelistic  efforts  of  Christians  already  here. 

Note  8.  After  Many  Years.  In  spite  of  personal  piety  and  growing 
churches,  there  was  much  that  was  unchristian  in  the  social  life  of  a 
century  ago,  but  modern  Christianity  has  shown  that  it  can  right  social 
wrongs  in  a  wider  sphere  than  in  the  more  distant  past.  The  spirit 
that  animated  Jesus  has  inspired  the  modern  saints.  It  has  freed  the 
slave,  and  relieved  the  laborer  from  many  of  his  burdens.  It  is  break- 
ing the  shackles  of  intemperance  and  ill-health.  It  has  shown  itself 
helpful  in  the  city  slum,  and  uplifting  in  the  rural  village.  It  has 
planted  the  church  on  the  American  frontier,  and  the  school  among 


288  Landmarks  in  Christian  History 


Lesson 


the  pagans  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  has  stimulated  education.  It  has 
squared  itself  with  the  new  science.  It  has  grappled  with  the  problems 
of  government  and  business.  It  is  showing  to  the  world  the  path  of 
peace.  The  Christian  religion  has  not  made  the  world  over  in  a  day, 
but  it  has  done  much;  and  the  encouragement  of  future  leaders,  as 
they  blaze  a  trail  over  untrodden  ways,  will  be  the  landmarks  of  the 
Christian  history  of  the  past. 

Questions  on  the  Summaries  of  Recent  Lessons. 

1.  How  has  Christianity  aided  education? 

2.  Who  was  the  founder  of  the  modern  Sunday  school.? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  evolution? 

4.  How  has  it  altered  thinking? 

5.  Why  has  reform  in  government  and  business  been  necessary? 

6.  What  has  taken  place  in  recent  years? 

Questions  on  the  Present  Lesson. 
1.  What  is  meant  by  the  truce  of  God? 


2.  What  early  steps  were  taken  to  promote  international  peace? 

3.  Has  arbitration  been  anything  more  than  a  theory? 

4.  What  Christian  groups  opposed  war  on  principle? 

5.  How  has  the  peace  movement  organized  in  recent  years? 

6.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Hague  Conferences  and  their  results. 

7.  How  has  the  Christian  spirit  worked  for  peace  in  history? 


^'^'y-'""'  The  World  at  Peace  289 

8.  What  is  the  Christ  of  the  Andes? 

9.  Show  how  Europe  awoke  to  a  new  understanding  of  Christianity. 


10.  Mention  some  social  achievements  of  nineteenth  century  Chris- 
tianity. 


Reading  References. 
(i)  Abbott:  Christianity  and  Social  Problems,  ch.  9.     {2)  Robinson 
and   Beard:    The  Development  of  Modern   Europe,   II,   pp.   367-372. 
{3)  Angell:   The  Great  Illusion.     (4)  Von  Suttner:  Lay  Down   Your 
Arms. 


''ffiSi'Mite.'SliS?'  Seminary  Libra, 


1    1012  01231    1397 


Date  Due 

V 

f 

I 

j 

f 

i. 

t 

I 


